Mongolia mŏn-gō´lēe, mŏng- , Asian region (c.906,000 sq mi/2,346,540 sq km), bordered roughly by Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, China, on the west; the Manchurian provinces of China on the east; Siberia on the north; and the Great Wall of China on the south. It now comprises the country of Mongolia (traditionally known as Outer Mongolia) and the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region of China.

Mongolia is chiefly a region of desert and of steppe plateau from c.3,000 to 5,000 ft (910-1,520 m) high. Winters are cold and dry and summers are warm and brief. The Gobi desert, which is entirely wasteland, is in the central section. To the west are the Altai Mts., which rise to 15,266 ft (4,653 m). Rivers include a section of the Huang He (Yellow River) in the south and the Selenga, Orkhon, and Kerulen in the north. Rainfall averages less than 15 in. (38.1 cm) a year.

Economy

Mongolia has traditionally been a land of pastoral nomadism; livestock raising and the processing of animal products are the main industries. Wool, hides, meat, cloth, and leather goods are exported. Irrigation has made some agriculture possible; wheat and oats are the chief crops. Coal, iron ore, gold, and oil are important mineral resources. Mongolia is crossed north to south by a railroad linking Beijing with Russia. The region has an adequate system of roadways, although most roads are unpaved. Camels and yaks are often used in desert and mountain areas. Trade traditionally has been greater with Russia than with China, but this has been changing in recent years.

History

Great hordes of horsemen have repeatedly swept down from Mongolia into N China, establishing vast, although generally short-lived, empires. In the 1st cent. AD Mongolia was inhabited by various Turkic tribes who dwelt mainly along the upper course of the Orkhon River. It was also the home of the Hsiung-nu (the Huns) who ravaged (1st-5th cent.) N China. The Uigur Turks founded their first empire (744-856) with its capital near Karakorum in W Mongolia. The Khitan, who founded the Liao dynasty (947-1125) in N China, were from Mongolia. Many smaller territorial states followed until (c.1205) Jenghiz Khan conquered all Mongolia, united its tribes, and from his capital at Karakorum led the Mongols in creating one of the greatest empires of all time. His successors established the Golden Horde in SE Russia and founded the Hulagid dynasty of Persia and the Yuan dynasty (1260-1368) of China.

After the decline of the Mongol empire, Mongolia intruded less in world affairs. China, which earlier had gained control of Inner Mongolia, subjugated Outer Mongolia in the late 17th cent., but in the succeeding years struggled with Russia for control. Outer Mongolia finally broke away in 1921 to form the Mongolian People's Republic (now Mongolia). Inner Mongolia remained under Chinese control, although the Japanese conquered Rehe (1933), which they included in Manchukuo, and Chahar and Suiyuan (1937), which they formed into Mengjiang (Mongol Border Land). These areas were returned to China after World War II. In 1944, Tannu Tuva (see Tuva Republic ), long recognized as part of Mongolia but under Russian influence since 1911, was incorporated within the USSR (now Russia). The Chinese Communists joined most of Inner Mongolia to N Rehe prov. and W Heilongjiang prov. to form the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region in 1949.

Mongolia Outer Mongolia Mongolia (Mongol Uls) since 1992. Previously the Mongolian People's Republic (1924–92); Outer Mongolia from the 17th century. During the 17th century the Chinese divided Mongolia into northern Outer Mongolia, (also known as Khalkha) and southern Inner Mongolia; and in 1691 Outer Mongolia accepted Manchu rule. It was no more than a frontier province of the Manchu Empire, guarding the border with Russia. The fall of the Manchu (Qing) dynasty in China in 1911 enabled Outer Mongolia to declare itself an independent monarchy with the throne being offered to the Living Buddha. The next year it became a Russian protectorate, but in 1915 an autonomous Mongolia was placed under Chinese suzerainty. In 1919 its autonomy was revoked and Mongolia was incorporated into the Republic of China. A successful revolt against the Chinese led to independence being proclaimed in 1921 (although not recognized by China until 1946) and the formation of a People's Republic in 1924 when the Living Buddha died. The country is named after the Mongols who took their name from mong ‘brave’ or ‘undefeated’. In the 13th century Genghis Khan and his successors created a great empire (known officially as Yeke Mongol Uls ‘The Great Mongol State’) which extended over much of China, Central Asia, and Russia. Although now accepted as being offensive, the word ‘mongol’ used to be applied to people suffering from Down's syndrome.

Mongolia A country in central Asia, bordered by Siberia, Russia on the north and China on the south. It was formerly known as Outer Mongolia (Inner Mongolia is now an autonomous region of China).

Physical

Mainly a high, barren plateau, Mongolia has mountains and saline lakes in the north-west and the Gobi Desert in the south-east. In winter it is very cold, and rainfall is light. Even so, there are areas of steppe on which livestock can be supported, and some grain is grown.

Economy

Mongolia is making the transition from a planned economy to a free-market economy. Aid from the former Soviet Union enabled infrastructural and limited industrial development, but has left Mongolia with a large foreign debt, and dependent on trade with the former Soviet Union, including imports of fuel, equipment, and spare parts. The predominantly nomadic pastoral economy is based on animal-breeding, with meat, livestock, and wool the main exports. However, agriculture, particularly cereal production, is being extended. Mineral resources such as fluorite and copper are exploited.

History

Although Mongolia is named after the Mongols, up to the 12th century they only controlled a small area near the sources of the Orkhon River, and other nomadic tribes, such as the Merkit and Naiman, held greater power in the Eastern steppes. In the 13th century, however, the Mongols swept out to create the MONGOL EMPIRE. In the 16th century they were converted to Lamaism. During the 17th century the MANCHUS won control of Inner and then of Outer Mongolia.

Outer Mongolia remained part of the Chinese empire until the fall of the QING dynasty in 1911, although Russia mounted an increasingly strong challenge for the area in later years. While the neighbouring region of Inner Mongolia remained in Chinese hands, Outer Mongolia seized independence in 1911 and reasserted it after brief Chinese and White Russian occupations in 1919–21. Outer Mongolia became communist in 1924 as the Mongolian People's Republic and remained so, following a policy of alliance with the Soviet Union. In July 1990 it became a multiparty democracy, but the Communist Party, now the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP), retained power under Dashiyn Byambasuren. Trade with the former Soviet Union fell and, with price deregulation, an economic crisis developed, with rationing of basic foodstuffs in January 1991. In 1992 the Prime Minister successfully negotiated commercial cooperation with Russia. The country, now called the State of Mongolia, adopted a new democratic constitution, which legalized private ownership. A general election, held in 1992, was again won by the MPRP. Punsalmaagiyn Ochirbat, first elected President in 1990, was re-elected in 1993, in the first direct presidential elections. However, in subsequent elections in 1996, the opposition Democratic Union coalition won a landslide victory and formed the first non-Communist administration for over 70 years. In 1997 Natsagiin Bagabandi was elected President.