CLOTHING FOR YOUTH

Rebel Clothes—Street Fashion

The 1980s saw the mainstreaming of fashion from the street, that is, the gradual permeation of adult chic by youthful rage. The evolution began in the 1970s with the breakdown of the traditional divisions of fashion. It continued into the 1980s as high-end designers and wealthy pop stars appropriated street fashion, thereby defeating the style's original purpose: inexpensive, functional clothing. Whether Americanized punk, urban rap, or Madonnaesque sleazy, these styles made a lasting mark on the way Americans dressed; street fashion became high fashion. Oversized clothing, worn jeans, T-shirts, leather, and multiple ear piercings, once limited to youth, were in the mainstream of adult fashion by the end of the decade. Women with ripped jeans or gel-spiked hair, combined with the more elegant yuppie style of a blazer and Chanel bag—or other such combinations—represented the merging of the styles.

Punk Style Comes to the United States

The punk influence had its roots in England in the mid 1970s. A style that was conceived when teenage unemployment first began to rise drastically, it carried the message of being on the outside looking in, of being rejected. What began as an aggressive and even sadomasochistic style worn by alienated youth became a tremendous fad, led by the British designer Vivienne Westwood. It spread with the help of punk bands, such as the Sex Pistols. It was the first style of which teenagers had complete control, and, therefore, the look was created with limited funds. Youths found their tight jeans, studded leather jackets, and T-shirts at thrift stores and flea markets. The look did not enter the mainstream of American fashion until the 1980s. American punks wore black clothing, leather accessories and jackets, ripped jeans, unisex earrings (several in one ear, the nose, and so on), and spiked and/or brightly dyed hair. The "Mohawk" hairstyle was a drastic form of the spiked look, with shaved sides and long spikes held up with gel or glue in the middle. Whereas in Britain the style carried an overt antiestablishment political message, in America it became more of a fashion statement: "weekend punks" wore a safety pin or two stuck in a jacket, or tore holes in the knees of their jeans. By the late 1980s, however, the look was waning, and it evolved into the "hobo" or flea-market style—equally rebellious but not as antagonistic or sexual (no more studded leather chokers).

Secondhand Clothes

Oversized clothes were part of the trend that also included old jeans, men's undershirts, thrift-shop overcoats, and dark sunglasses. Youth purposely tore their shirts or treated their jeans with bleach or acid to give them a lived-in or old look. The objective was to look as if one did not have money to spend on clothes or just did not care how one looked. It was a style that was in direct opposition to the older generation, who, in an effort to show off their wealth, were sporting Rolex watches, flashy jewelry, and expensive leather bags. But eventually this ragged, low-cost look caught on and entered the mainstream, as in the manufacturing of acid-washed jeans. These worn-looking jeans sold in catalogues and mall stores for as much or more than new-looking jeans. Faded denim in pants, skirts, and jackets became stylish and even chic. American designers also caught on to the marketability of youth fashion. One example was the young designer Stephen Sprouse, who made clothes for pop musicians such as Debbie Harry: he turned the secondhand look into a slicker, more urban style by using Day-Glo colors of the 1960s. Although he went out of business twice, he enjoyed a great deal of positive attention from the fashion runways. The other trend in high fashion inspired by youth fashion's second-hand look was quirky tailoring—pants too short, sleeves too long, collar too large, and so on.

Breaking and Rapping

Another fad came from urban African American break-dancers and rap singers. Both trends began on the streets of city neighborhoods as expressions of urban teenagers' experience; street music and the corresponding fashion were gritty, sexual, and aggressive—a kind of aural graffiti. In the 1980s their audience broadened as performers were seen in subway stations and in shows in New York's Times Square area. Eventually, rap groups such as Run-DMC and the Fat Boys received countrywide attention on MTV, Arsenio Hall's talk show, and Swatch Watch commercials. Their clothing, which was in opposition to the contained, clean-cut yuppie style, became as stylish as their music. In the early 1980s dancers wore nylon jogging suits decorated with zippers, along with gloves to break their falls when dancing or spinning. Bandannas or punk-inspired leather bands around the wrists and high-tops or other sneakers were part of the look. Sleeveless muscle shirts or chest-revealing jackets showing off heavy gold chains were reminiscent of the machismo look of the 1950s as well as the sexual expressiveness of 1970s disco. By the late 1980s rap was overtaking break dancing in popularity, and the look became less macho but just as aggressive in its status symbols and deliberate sloppiness: the typical rapper wore laceless brand-name sneakers with huge gold rope chains and a sideways baseball cap, along with the established sweatsuit or, later, baggy tops with jeans.

Urban Street Fashion Appropriated and Sold

The media, specifically television, disseminated the aggressive, sensual styles of black urban culture into the main-stream. The cable channel Music Television—MTV—made its rise in the 1980s, gaining 24.2 million viewers by 1984 with its continuous showing of music videos: three-to five-minute narratives accompanying the musicians' performances. The impact on fashion was immense: the oversized look, inspired by rappers, permeated all aspects of clothing, from huge T-shirts worn with jeans or leggings to the large flea-market-style coat. First, rap music was popularized through music videos and performances on the African American host Arsenio Hall's talk show. Then, pop musicians, such as Michael Jackson and Madonna, appropriated dance moves and clothing from break-dancing and rap culture. Finally, MTV aired the pop musicians' latest videos twenty-four hours a day. Avid television viewers, suburban teenagers soon filled the malls, clamoring for oversized "rap" clothes, Nike brand sneakers (to be worn untied), inspired by break dancing and Michael Jackson gloves, and punk/Madonna-like lace stockings and miniskirts. Punk, break-dancing, and rap cultures had inspired pop musicians, who then made the styles safe for suburban mall fashion. The music video had become the fashion industry's and retailers' favorite advertising tool.

Sexual Identity and Gender Play

As conservative adult fashion tried to reaffirm traditional gender roles and push sex (along with AIDS and homosexuality) into the background, youth fashion grappled with these issues through androgynous clothes and sexually expressive styles. Rectangular-shaped, androgynous clothes created by Japanese designers were copied in America. The British singer George Michael updated the sexy, rugged look with his punk/street version: one earring, stubble, and black leather jacket. In contrast, another British musician, Boy George, inspired an androgynous look with long hair and makeup. In their dress and behavior Michael Jackson, Madonna, and Prince (who wore black panties on stage) drew attention to social issues such as gender and racial identity; part of their success can be attributed to their ability to do so without offending the still-conservative mainstream—to water down radical styles into safe commodities.

Madonna

This closely watched star borrowed from innovative street fashion such items as gloves (from break-dancers) and black miniskirts and lacy stockings (from punk). Her sexual, predatory-woman look was inspired by the female punk's miniskirts and ripped lace, but Madonna softened and glamorized the look with movie-star makeup, neon colors, and lace left intact. Her "material girl" look was highly popular, girls as young as eleven tied rags in their hair and wore lingeries s gloves and rows of bangle bracelets. Madonna's look was always changing, but remnants of her earlier styles, especially the "sleaze look," permeated young women's wardrobes; Madonna-inspired crucifix necklaces were a fad that continued into the 1990s. She also took part in the exercise trend, transforming her body from soft and curvy to lean and muscular by the end of the decade.

Michael Jackson

Jackson was young Americans' top hero, according to the 1983 World Almanac, and his influence on youth fashion was, accordingly, substantial. His costume—mock-military jacket, single glove, ankle-length pants, low-cut white socks worn with black patent leather slippers—crossed gender lines and mocked tradition at a time when tradition was receiving new respect from the older generation. Jackson had teenagers across the country (as well as abroad), including those who had never seen a break-dancer, wearing one glove and doing the "moon walk."

Authenticity

For teenagers the label fad seen in adult preppy fashion evolved into an authenticity trend. As they became aware of the status associated with a label, teenagers wanted only the accepted—and usually most expensive—brand of jeans, shirts, and shoes. Shopping malls, with the same chain stores in each, made it possible for teenagers from all parts of the country to buy trendy products, resulting in conformity throughout the high schools of America. The logos proving the items' authenticity came to mean status and wealth. Students had created their own system to prove "success": their yuppie suit was a pair of authentic 501 Levis with an oversized T-shirt or rugby shirt, real dockside shoes, and maybe a Swatch Watch: a flimsy, clear-plastic timepiece with colorful, playful designs instead of numbers on the face.

Sources:

Craig Brown, "The Rock and Roll of Fashion," Harper's Bazaar, 120 (July 1986): 128-137;

Farid Chenoune, A History of Men's Fashion (Paris: Flammarion, 1993);

Nelson George, Buppies, B-Boys, Baps, and Bohos: Notes on Post Soul Black Culture (New York: HarperCollins, 1992);

MaryBeth Kerrigan, "Punk Passion, Fashion"' Daily News Record (New York), 3 October 1986;

Richard Maltby, Passing Parade: A History of Popular Culture in the 20th Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989);

Jane Mulvagh, Vogue History of 20th Century Fashion (London & New York: Viking, 1988);

Blanche Payne, The History of Costume (New York: HarperCollins, 1992).

Clothing Trends for Youth

The Grunge Look

American youth greeted the new decade in ripped-up jeans. The look, a carryover from the 1980s, featured jeans—new and old—with strategically placed horizontal slits, usually across the knee. The trend was just a harbinger of what was ahead. A new fashion scene took shape in 1991, when the Seattle-based alternative rock band Nirvana released its commercial breakthrough album, Nevermind. Suddenly, the Seattle music scene—and its image—was the look for Generation X, as teens and young adults in their twenties were sometimes called. The music tapped into the sense of angst shared by many young people as the economy continued to spiral downward early in the decade. Grunge was a response to the power dressing and elitism of the 1980s, as rock bands such as Sound-garden, Pearl Jam, Alice in Chains, and Nirvana led the way. Their look, rooted in urban bohemianism and club comfort, was emulated by youth around the country. The new uniform was not only easy to assemble, it was cheap: thrift-store finds fit in perfectly. Loose-fitting pants—either old jeans or long shorts for both girls and guys—formed the basis of the look. Thrift-store trousers were also acceptable. Ratty flannel, button-down shirts worn over T-shirts, or long-sleeved undershirts defined grunge. Torn corduroy jackets or old cardigans were optional. Converse high-top sneakers, boots, and heavy-soled shoes—particularly ones by Doc Martens—were preferred. Baseball caps topped off the look. Like most trends, grunge eventually gave way to new fads.The rage began to ebb when twenty-seven-year-old Kurt Cobain, lead singer of Nirvana, was found dead from an apparently self-inflicted gunshot wound in April 1994.

Hip-hop Effect

While alternative rock brought grunge to the forefront in the early 1990s, hip-hop music created its own fashion empire throughout the decade. Hip-hop and rap, terms that were almost inter-changeable, traced their roots back to black street music of the 1970s. This music, as well as its accompanying culture and fashion, grew throughout the 1980s and exploded in the 1990s. In 1998, for example, rap outsold country music, which was formerly the top-selling format in the United States. Rap sold more than eightyone million compact discs, tapes, and albums that year. The growth of this musical format brought incredible demand for its fashion counterpart. The hip-hop look was diverse, and evolved over time, as it was adopted by white youth. One of the most enduring images of hip-hop, however, were baggy pants worn around the hip to expose underwear waistbands bearing designer names. Other essentials included pricey sneakers (sometimes worn with laces untied), hooded sweatshirts ("hoodies," with the hoods often covering the head), and flashes of jewelry (preferably gold or platinum). While these items defined hip-hop fashions, the look progressed—jeans that were super-baggy at the start of the decade were merely loose by its end. Baseball caps that used to be worn backward faced front again or at least to the side for some youths, and shared the top spot with ski caps (known as "skullies"). Gold jewelry gave way to ethnic African accoutrements, such as colorful, native batik fabrics. Hoodies made way for loose-fitting hockey jerseys, polo shirts, ski jackets, and varsity jackets. Sneakers paved the way for hiking boots. Brand names also played an important role in hip-hop fashions, as many styles prominently featured logos. Jeans and shirts labeled "Tommy Hilfiger" were hot commodities, as was Ralph Lauren's Polo logo. African-American labels—FUBU (an acronym for the slogan For Us by Us), Naughty Gear, Phat Farm, Pure Playaz, UB Tuff, and Wu-Wear—were particularly important in the hip-hop culture. Musicians and rappers such as LL Cool J, Tupac Shakur, Puff Daddy (who would also introduce his own line of fashions, call Sean John), and Lauryn Hill helped to set style standards.

Mix and Match

Just like their adult counterparts, stylish teens did not follow a singular fashion dictum. Rather, they borrowed from past decades, different cultures, and a variety of styles. Young women were spotted wearing 1960s-type tie-dyes and 1970s-style jeans with flared bottoms. Girls wore miniskirts, knee-length floral skirts, and ankle-grazing A-line cotton skirts. They were just as likely to wear platform shoes, with their high clunky heels and elevated soles, as they were to sport a pair of loafers, updated for the 1990s with thick heels, or a pair of felt-covered clogs. Young men, on the other hand, borrowed from the 1980s preppy look. Simple long-sleeved button-down shirts were classic yet comfortable enough to make the grade with students. Polo shirts also earned high marks.

BODY ART

Once only seen on the chests and arms of such individuals as sailors or motorcycle gang members, tattoos, along with body piercing, became a fashionable statement during the 1990s for a wide range of Americans. Tattooing was common historically among many cultures, but gained popularity in the English-speaking world primarily on the bodies of sailors who had traveled to the South Seas as early as the 1700s. Many of these works of skin art featured indecently clad women, which the U.S. Navy at the beginning of the twentieth century attempted to stop theirsailors from acquiring, at least the most offensive images.

During the decade more individuals, especially women, started altering their bodies. Tattoos ranged from tiny drawings hidden away from sight, to elaborate master-pieces that covered the arms, neck, and back. Anyone watching professional football, basketball, or wrestling was certain to view several athletes sporting tattoos. These works were no longer restricted to the traditional drawings done primarily in black, but became increasingly colorful and elaborate with new advances in equipment and inks. While the huge baby pins and other elaborate pierced jewelry of the punk period passed, many young men and women pierced other parts of their bodies. Popular locations for body jewelry, outside of the earlobe, included the nose, tongue, and belly button.

One of the more visible athletes so adorned, with his nose ring and ever-changing hair color, was National Basketball Association (NBA) forward Dennis Rodman. In almost any sport one could glimpse tatoos on the players sbiceps and feet. Athletes were not alone, however, in coloring their skin, as many actors and musicians, especially rock and rap artists, were adorned with tattoos. The music video channel, Music Television (MTV), is credited by some tatoo artists with popularizing the art form.

Another new wrinkle to skin art was that African Americans in greater numbers began to get tattoos. For decades the only blacks with tattoos tended to be members of black fraternities, but as rap and gang-related materials gained in popularity, the art form spread to a wider audience. Rapper-actor Tupac Shakur's torso, for instance, was covered with tattooed messages.

The first tattoo convention was held in Houston, Texas, in 1976. In the 1990s regular conventions, both national and international, attracted both professional artists and curious onlookers. Tattooing was also being recognized as a legitimate art form. Even museums exhibited tattoo designs, such as the "Pierced Hearts and True Love" show in 1996 at the Williams Art Museum in Williamstown, Massachusetts.

Sources:

Don Ed Hardy, "Tattoo History Source Book: Yesterday and Today," transcribed and edited by Steve Gilbert, Tattoo.Com, Internet website.

"Sailors Tattoos," Tattoo Archive, Internet website.

Fashion Favorites

Teenagers of both genders shared some fashion favorites, particularly toward the end of the decade. Although jeans—particularly loose-fitting, wide-legged ones—were a fashion staple, khakis nearly overtook them as the essential item to own. These simple cotton pants with their classic cut provided the comfort and easy style students sought. Cargo pants and carpenter pants also became important features in teen fashion; they, like khakis, were usually made of cotton. Cargo pants featured large pockets on the outside of the pant legs, while carpenter pants featured a variety ot small pockets and loops (originally designed to hold a carpenter's tools). T-shirts, pullover sweaters, polo shirts, and sweatshirts typically topped the look. Brand names popular at the time include cK by Calvin Klein, Tommy Hilfiger, and Polo. Teens shopped at such stores as The Gap, Abercrombie & Fitch, and Old Navy. Color schemes were usually basic—browns, tans, and khakis. Jeans almost always were some shade of blue. Tops, when not a basic white T-shirt, came in standard shades such as brown, gray, green, and blue. Hints of color came through with items such as a yellow jacket, red sweater, or orange T-shirt.

Sources:

"17 Most Wanted," Seventeen, 58 (August 1999): 230-231.

Bill Barol, "Anatomy of a Fad," Newsweek, 115 (Summer/Fall 1990): 40-41.

"Boho Baby," Seventeen, 58 (September 1999): 72.

Lloyd Boston, Men of Color: Fashion History Fundamentals (New York: Artisan, 1998), p. 46.

Jay Cocks, "Rap Around The Globe," Time, 140 (19 October 1992): 70-71.

Denise Cowie, "Cargo Pants, Carpenter Togs, Extra-Wide-Leg Jeans Spell Fashion," The State (Columbia, S.C.): 2 August 1998.

Tamala M. Edwards and Joel Stein, "Getting Giggy with A Hoodie,"Time, 151 (19 January 1998): 71-72.

Christopher John Farley, "Hip-Hop Nation," Time, 153 (8 February 1999): 54-64.

Farley, "Rock's Anxious Rebels," Time, 142 (25 October 1993): 60-66.

Bruce Handy, "Never Mind," Time, 143 (18 April 1994): 70-72.

"Multiple Choice," Seventeen, 58 (September 1999): 240-247.

Jonathan Poneman, "Grunge & Glory," Vogue, 182 (December 1992):253-260,312.

Mary K. Pratt, "Comfort Is Common Thread for Fashions on Campus," The State (Columbia, S.C.): Student Life Fall Edition 1999.

"Toggle Switch," Seventeen, 58 (September 1999): 82.

"Trends 4 Fall," Seventeen, 58 (August 1999): 223-229.