Mongolia

views updated May 18 2018

MONGOLIA

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT
TOPOGRAPHY
CLIMATE
FLORA AND FAUNA
ENVIRONMENT
POPULATION
MIGRATION
ETHNIC GROUPS
LANGUAGES
RELIGIONS
TRANSPORTATION
HISTORY
GOVERNMENT
POLITICAL PARTIES
LOCAL GOVERNMENT
JUDICIAL SYSTEM
ARMED FORCES
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
ECONOMY
INCOME
LABOR
AGRICULTURE
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
FISHING
FORESTRY
MINING
ENERGY AND POWER
INDUSTRY
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
DOMESTIC TRADE
FOREIGN TRADE
BALANCE OF PAYMENTS
BANKING AND SECURITIES
INSURANCE
PUBLIC FINANCE
TAXATION
CUSTOMS AND DUTIES
FOREIGN INVESTMENT
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
HEALTH
HOUSING
EDUCATION
LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS
MEDIA
ORGANIZATIONS
TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION
FAMOUS MONGOLIANS
DEPENDENCIES
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Mongol Uls

CAPITAL: Ulaanbaatar

FLAG: The national flag, adopted in 1946, contains a blue vertical stripe between two red stripes; in gold, on the stripe nearest the hoist, is the soyombo, Mongolia's independence emblem.

ANTHEM: Bügd Nayramdah mongol ard ulsyn töriin duulal (State Anthem of the Mongolian People's Republic).

MONETARY UNIT: The tugrik (t) of 100 mongos. There are coins of 1, 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 50 mongos and notes of 1, 3, 5, 10, 20, 25, 50, and 100 tugriks. t1 = $0.00084 (or $1 = t1,187.17) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Constitution Day, 13 January; Women's Day, 8 March; Mother and Children's Day, 1 June; Naadam Festival, 1113 July; Mongolian Republic Day, 26 November. Movable holidays include Mongol New Year's Day, in February or March.

TIME: 8 pm = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

Situated in east-central Asia, Mongolia has an area of 1,565,000 sq km (604,250 sq mi), extending 2,368 km (1,471 mi) ew and 1,260 km (783 mi) ns. Comparatively, the area occupied by Mongolia is slightly smaller than the state of Alaska. The largest landlocked country in the world, Mongolia is bordered on the n by Russia and on the e, s, and w by China, with a total boundary length of 8,162 km (5,072 mi).

TOPOGRAPHY

Mongolia is essentially a vast plateau with an average elevation of 914 to 1,524 m (3,000 to 5,000 ft). Mongolia comprises a mountainous section in the extreme west, where the peak of Nayramadlin Orgil (Huyten Orgil) of the Mongolian Altay Mountains rises to a height of 4,374 m (14,350 ft). Other mountain ranges are the Hentiyn, along the Soviet border, and the Hangayn, in west-central Mongolia. The southern part of the country is occupied by the Gobi, a rocky desert with a thin veneer of shifting sand. Explorations have uncovered large reservoirs of water 23 m (710 ft) beneath the desert surface. The largest lakes are found in the northwest. These include the nation's largest lake, Uvs Lake, a saltwater lake with an area of about 3,366 sq km (1,300 sq mi).

CLIMATE

Mongolia has an arid continental climate with a wide seasonal range of temperature and low precipitation. In winter, it is the site of the great Siberian high, which governs the climate of a large part of Asia and gives Mongolia average winter temperatures of -21° to -6°c (-6° to -22°f) and dry, virtually snowless winters. In summer, remnants of the southeasterly monsoon bring most of the year's precipitation. Annual precipitation ranges from 25 to 38 cm (10 to 15 in) in mountain areas to less than 10 cm (4 in) in the Gobi.

FLORA AND FAUNA

Mongolia is divided into several natural regions, each with its characteristic plant and animal life. These regions are the mountain forests near the Soviet Siberian border; the mountain steppe and hilly forest farther south; the lowland steppe grasslands; the semidesert; and finally the true desert. Larch and Siberian stone pine are characteristic trees of the northern forests, which are inhabited by bear, Manchurian red deer, snow panther, wild boar, and elk. The saiga antelope and the wild horse are typical steppe dwellers. As of 2002, there were at least 133 species of mammals, 274 species of birds, and over 2,800 species of plants throughout the country.

ENVIRONMENT

Environmental problems facing Mongolia include desertification, inadequate water supply, and air and water pollution. Areas affected by deforestation and excessive grazing are eventually overtaken by the desert. After a winter of little snow, wildfires spread across northern Mongolia from March until June of 1996. The fires were the most extensive since records were first compiled in 1978, resulting in 26 deaths and nearly 800 people injured or rendered homeless. An estimated 20% of Mongolia's coniferous forest was damaged in the blaze. In 2000, only about 6.8% of the total land area was forested.

Water pollution is a particularly significant problem in Mongolia because the water supply is so limited. The country has only 35 cu km of renewable water resources. In 2002, only 87% of city dwellers and 30% of the people living in rural areas had access to improved water sources.

The country's air pollution problems are due to increased industrial activity within the country, including the burning of soft coal, and airborne industrial pollution from the former Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. The heavy concentration of factories in Ulaanbaatar has polluted the environment in that area.

In 2003, about 11.5% of the total land area was protected, including six Ramsar wetland sites. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), threatened species included 13 types of mammals, 22 species of birds, 1 species of fish, and 3 species of invertebrates. Przewalski's horse (also called takh) is considered to be the last existing ancestor of the modern domesticated horse. The species was extinct in the wild of Mongolia by 1970, but a special government project of breeding the remaining animals in captivity has resulted in more than 1,500 horses reintroduced to a nature reserve at Hustain Nuruu. Threatened species included the Bactrian camel, the snow leopard, and the saiga.

POPULATION

The population of Mongolia in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 2,646,000, which placed it at number 135 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 4% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 31% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 100 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 200510 was expected to be 1.6%, a rate the government viewed as satisfactory. The projected population for the year 2025 was 3,390,000. The population density was less than 1 person per sq km (1 per sq mi).

The UN estimated that 57% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 1.74%. The capital city, Ulaanbaatar, had a population of 812,000 in that year. Darhan has a population of 90,000; Erdenet, 72,300.

MIGRATION

Few Mongolian nationals live outside the country, but 3.4 million persons of Mongolian extraction lived in the Inner Mongolia province of China. About 500,000 live in Russiain the Buryat and Kalmyk republics. Between 1955 and 1962, some 20,000 Chinese laborers entered Mongolia to work on construction projects, but in 1964 Mongolia expelled about 2,000 Chinese nationals who had refused to take part in an agricultural resettlement program. In addition, Mongolia expelled 7,000 ethnic Chinese between 1983 and 1993. Since the independence of Kazakhstan, many Kazakhs have emigrated.

Nomadic herders account for nearly half of Mongolia's population. Mongolia is one of the only developing countries where internal migration to rural areas exceeds migration to cities. The number of families formally registered as nomadic herders grew from an estimated 74,000 in 1990 to 170,000 in 1995. In 2000 the total number of migrants was 8,000, with virtually no refugees. There were no reports of refugees or asylum seekers in 2004.

In 2004 some 2,259 Mongolians sought asylum in Europe, mainly in France and the United Kingdom.

In 2005, the net migration rate was estimated as zero, a significant change from 2000 when the rate was -6.5 per 1,000 population. The government views the migration levels as satisfactory.

ETHNIC GROUPS

According to latest estimates, about 85% of the population are ethnic Mongols; they are primarily Khalkha, which account for about 90% of all Mongols. The remainder include Durbet Mongols of the north and Dariganga Mongols in the east. Turkic speakers (including Kazakhs, Turvins, and Khotans) account for about 7% of the population. Other groups include those of Chinese and Russian origin.

LANGUAGES

Khalkha Mongolian, the official language, is spoken by about 90% of the population. It is one of a large dialect group in the Mongolic branch of the Altaic language family. Early in the 13th century, the Mongols adopted an alphabet written in vertical columns from the Turkic Uighurs, and they retained that script until modern times. The literary language differed increasingly from the living spoken language and, in 1941, the Mongolian government decided to introduce a new phonetic alphabet that would accurately reflect modern spoken Mongolian. The new alphabet consisted of the Cyrillic letters used in Russian, except for two special characters needed to render the Mongolian vowels represented as ö and ü in Western European languages. After a period of preparation (194145), the new alphabet was introduced in 1946 in all publications and in 1950 in all business transactions, but, following independence, the traditional script was due to be restored in 1994.

The differences between the Khalkha language spoken in Mongolia, the Buryat language spoken in the Buryat Republic of the Russian Federation, the Chahar and Ordos languages of China's Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region, and other Mongolian dialects are comparatively small and chiefly phonetic. A characteristic phonetic feature of Mongolian is the law of vowel harmony, which requires that a word contain either the so-called back vowels, represented as a, o, and u in Western European languages, or the so-called front vowels, represented as e (ā), ö, and ü, but not an association of the two types of vowels. Turkic, Russian, and Chinese are also spoken.

RELIGIONS

Before the government's campaign against religion in the 1930s, there were about 700 Buddhist monasteries with about 100,000 lamas in Mongolia. During 193639, the Communist regime closed virtually all monasteries, confiscated their livestock and landholdings, tried the higher lamas for counterrevolutionary activities, and induced thousands of lower lamas to adopt a secular mode of life. In the mid-1980s, only about 100 lamas remained. Since the new constitution of 1992 established freedom of religion, Mahayana Buddhism has made a surprising resurgence. Former monasteries have been restored, and there is a seminary at Gandantegchinlen Hiyd. In 1992, Roman Catholic missionaries were also encouraged to come to Mongolia to continue the presence they had initiated earlier in the century.

A 2004 report indicated that about 50% of the population practiced some form of Buddhism, mostly Lamaist (or Tibetan) Buddhism. About 4% of the population were ethnic Kazakh Muslims. There were small Christian communities throughout the country, including Roman Catholics, Russian Orthodox, and Protestants. It is believed that some natives practice shamanism. About 40% of the population still claims no religious affiliation.

The constitution provides for freedom of religion and the separation of church and state. However, the government has reserved the right to place some restrictions on religious activities. For instance, the government can limit the number of churches and clergy allowed for each religious organization. Religious groups are required to register through the Ministry of Justice and Home Affairs.

TRANSPORTATION

The Trans-Mongolian Railway, about 1,496 km (930 mi) in length, connects Mongolia with both China and Russia. Ulaanbaatar has been connected to the Trans-Siberian Railway via Bayantümen since 1939 and via Sühbaatar since 1950, and to the Chinese Railways via Dzamïn üüd since the end of 1955. Choybalsan is also connected to the Trans-Siberian system via Ereenstav. Ulaanbaatar Railways has been linked to Nalayh since 1938 and to Darhan and Tamsagbulag since 1964. The Sharïn Gol Open-Pit Coal Mining Industry was connected to the Darhan industrial center during the third five-year plan (196165) by a 60-km (37-mi) rail line. A 200-km (124-mi) railroad line connects Erdenet, a copper-molybdenum mining and industrial center near the Russian border, with the Trans-Mongolian Railway. The total length of railroads in 2004 was 1,810 km (1,125 mi), all of it broad gauge.

Mongolia had 49,256 km (30,637 mi) of roadways in 2002, of which 1,724 km (1,068.8 mi) were paved. Although Mongolia, as of 2004, had 580 km (360 mi) of navigable waterways, only Lake Hovsgol (135 km) was in regular use. The 270 km (168 mi) Selenge River and the 175 km (109 mi) Orhon River, while navigable, carry little traffic. In addition, the country's lakes and rivers are only open from May through September due to freezing in winter. Although land-locked, Mongolia, as of 2005, had a merchant fleet of 65 vessels of 1,000 GRT or more, totaling 339,423 GRT.

There were an estimated 46 airports in 2004. As of 2005, a total of 14 had paved runways, and there were also two heliports. Mongolia's first air service began operating between Ulaanbaatar and Verkhneudinsk in eastern Siberia in 1926. Miat-Air Mongol is the principal airline. In 2003, about 295,000 passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international airline flights.

HISTORY

Archaeological investigations show that the land now known as Mongolia has been inhabited since the Lower Paleolithic period, more than 130,000 years ago. By about 1000 bc, animal husbandry of the nomadic type had developed, and by the 3rd century bc, a clan style of organization based on horsemanship had emerged. The Huns, a Turkic-speaking people, driven westward during the Han dynasty in China (206 bcad 220), created a nomadic empire in central Asia that extended into Europe, beginning about ad 370. It reached almost to Rome under the leadership of Attila (r.433?453) and declined after his death. Mongolia first played an important part in world history in ad 1206, when the Mongol tribes united under the leadership of the conqueror Temujin, or Genghis Khan. The Mongols set up their capital at Karakorum and established a vast empire extending from the northern Siberian forest to Tibet and from the Caspian Sea to the Pacific. After the death of Genghis in 1227, his empire was divided among his sons into Mongol states, or khanates: the Great Khanate of East Asia, which included the Yüan dynasty of China, and reached its peak under Kublai Khan (r.126094), who established his capital at Cambaluc (now Beijing); the Khanate of Chaghadai (Djakhatai) in Turkestan; the Hulagid Khanate, founded by Hulagu Khan in Persia; and the Golden Horde in southern Russia, founded by Batu Khan, who invaded Poland and Hungary in 1240. Having crossed the Danube River, Batu withdrew in 1241. The Mongols' century of dominance in Asia allowed for great trade and cultural interchange but also led to the spread of the bubonic plague to Europe.

During the 14th century, the great Mongol states disintegrated. The Yüan dynasty in China collapsed in 1368, to be replaced by the Ming dynasty; the western part of the Turkestan Khanate was incorporated into the empire of Timur in 1390; Hulagu's Persian empire disintegrated after 1335; and the Golden Horde was attacked and shaken by the forces of Prince Dmitry Donskoy in Russia in 1380 but ruled South Russia into the 15th century. In 1369, at the age of 33, Timur, also called Timur Lenk ("Timur the Lame") or Tamerlane, proclaimed himself ruler of all the land lying between the Tien Shan and the Hindu Kush mountain ranges. The Mongols retired to their original steppe homelands, splitting into three major groups: the northern Khalkha Mongols, north of the Gobi Desert; the southern Chahar Mongols, south of the Gobi; and the western Oirat Mongols. Babur, a descendant of Timur, founded the Mughal (or Mogul) Empire (so called from the Farsi word for "Mongol") in India in 1526; it lasted until the 18th century. Buddhism, which had been introduced by Tibetan monks in the 15th century, became widespread in the 16th and 17th centuries.

A cleavage developed between the northern (outer) Mongols and the southern (inner) Mongols, who had been more closely associated with Mongol rule in China. In the course of conquering China, the Manchus subdued the southern Mongols in 1636, placing them under the eventual rule of China's Qing (Ch'ing) or Manchu dynasty (16441911). The northern Mongols, who had been fighting with western Mongols for supremacy, sought Manchu aid against their foes and accepted Manchu suzerainty in 1691. Finally, the Manchus destroyed the western Mongols as a historical force in 1758. The Russian-Chinese border treaties of Nerchinsk (1689) and Kyakhta (1727) confirmed Chinese rule over both the southern and northern Mongols but assigned the Buryats to Russia.

Following the overthrow of the Manchu dynasty by the Chinese revolution in 1911, northern Mongol princes proclaimed an autonomous Outer Mongolia under the rule of Bogdo Khan, the Living Buddha (Jebtsun Damba Khutukhtu) of Urga, an earlier name of Ulaanbaatar. A treaty with the tsar's government pledged Russian assistance for the autonomous state. After the Bolshevik Revolution, the Chinese exploited Russia's weakness, reoccupying Outer Mongolia in 1919 and ending its autonomy. In early 1921, the Chinese were driven out by Russian counterrevolutionary forces under Baron von Ungern-Sternberg. He, in turn, was overcome in July 1921 by the Mongol revolutionary leaders Sukhe Baatar and Khorloin Choybalsan, assisted by the Soviet Red Army. Under Soviet influence, a nominally independent state, headed by the Living Buddha, was proclaimed on 11 July 1921 and lasted as a constitutional monarchy until his death in 1924.

The Mongolian People's Republic (MPR), the second communist country in world history, was proclaimed on 26 November 1924. With the support of the former USSR, Communist rule was gradually consolidated. Large landholdings of feudal lords were confiscated, starting in 1929, and those of monasteries in 1938. A 10-year mutual assistance treaty, signed in 1936 and renewed for another 10 years in 1946, formalized the close relations between the former USSR and the MPR. In the summer of 1939, with Soviet support, the Mongolians fought invading Japanese along the border with Manchuria, ending with a solid defeat for the Japanese in September. After a virtually unanimous plebiscite by the Mongolians in favor of independence, the Nationalist government of the Republic of China formally recognized the MPR in 1945 (it withdrew its recognition in 1953) and the Nationalists on Taiwan still claim Mongolia as part of China. On 14 February 1950, the People's Republic of China and the former USSR signed a treaty that guaranteed the MPR's independence. In October 1961, the MPR became a member of the United Nations. Conflicting boundary claims between the MPR and China were settled by treaty on 26 December 1962, and on 30 June 1964 the MPR and the former USSR signed a 20-year treaty of friendship, cooperation, and mutual assistance. In June 1987, the MPR and the United States established diplomatic relations. With the growth of cities around the mining industry, Mongolian society shifted from being 78% rural in 1956 to being 52% urban in 1980 to 57% in 2005.

With their close ties with the former USSR, Mongolians were well aware of Soviet policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) and of the democratic movements in Eastern Europe after the mid-1980s. The MPR initiated its own policy of "openness" (il tod ) and began economic reforms to serve as transitional steps away from a centrally planned, collective economy and toward a market economy. Following the first popular demonstrations calling for faster reforms, in Ulaanbaatar in December 1989, the ruling Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) opted for political as well as economic reforms. The MPRP's leadership resigned in March 1990 and in May the constitution (of 1960) was amended to allow for new, multiparty elections, which took place in July. The MPRP won a majority (85% of the seats) in the legislature, the People's Great Hural (PGH), which took office in September. The PGH elected as president a member of the MPRP, Punsalmaagiyn Ochirbat, but invited the opposition parties to join in forming the new government.

During 1991, the new government discussed Mongolia's economic and political transformation. It issued vouchers to all citizens for the purchase of state property as a step toward privatization. Economic reform was made more difficult by the economic collapse of the former Soviet Union. In 1991, Russia insisted on trade based on cash rather than barter and dramatically cut aid. By 1992, Mongolia faced severe energy shortages. In 1991, the PGH also discussed the writing of a new constitution, which took effect in February of the next year. Based on that constitution, elections in June 1992 created a new legislature (with a MPRP majority), the State Great Hural (SGH) and, in June 1993, President Ochirbat was reelected (but with the support of a coalition of new parties, not the MPRP) in the first direct presidential elections. By September 1992, some 67,000 former Soviet troops (in Mongolia since 1966 when Sino-Soviet tensions increased) completed a process of withdrawal begun in 1990.

In the 1996 parliamentary elections, discontent, especially among the young, led to the defeat of the MPRP. The leaders of the winning Democratic Union Coalition (DUC), mostly political novices, promised to intensify market reforms. The election results marked the first smooth transfer of power in Mongolia's modern history and one of the most peaceful among all the former communist nations. In the following years, however, the stability and effectiveness of Mongolia's democratic government were hobbled by disunity within the majority DUC and by the political stalemate between the DUC and the ex-communists of the opposition MPRP. In late 1996 and early 1997, the MPRP prevailed in local elections, and its candidate, Natsagiyn Bagabandi, was elected president. After the resignation of two prime ministers, the nation was left with an interim government in the second half of 1998, as Bagabandi rejected multiple DUC nominees for the post.

In October 1998 the country was shaken by the murder of Sanjaasurengiyn Zorig, a pro-democracy leader and government minister who had been tapped to be the next DUC nominee for prime minister. By August 1999, yet another DUC government had fallen, and Rinchinnyamiin Amarjargal, the 38-year-old former foreign minister, became Mongolia's third prime minister in 15 months.

On 2 July 2000, parliamentary elections were held that resulted in an overwhelming victory for the MPRP. The MPRP took 72 of 76 seats in the State Great Hural, with only 4 seats going to opposition members. Nambaryn Enkhbayar was named prime minister. On 20 May 2001, Bagabandi was reelected president with 58% of the vote, giving the MPRP control of both the presidency and parliament. The elections were characterized by international observers as free and fair.

In November 2002, the Dalai Lama visited Mongolia, a trip denounced by China. China warned Mongolian officials not to meet with the Tibetan spiritual leader, and briefly suspended train services with the country. Thousands of Mongolian Buddhists attended the Dalai Lama's speech on 6 November.

As of early 2003, the country continued to face problems of high unemployment, poor welfare and education systems, corruption, crime, and harsh winters. This was due, in part, to a steep drop in world prices for Mongolia's two largest exports, cashmere and copper. The severe winter of 2001 killed at least 1.3 million livestock; approximately 40% of Mongolians depend upon the country's 30 million livestock for their livelihood. Mongolia, though engaging in increased privatization of state-owned enterprises to speed the country's alignment with free market principles, has been careful to dedicate a percentage of the resulting revenues to social programs. Growth improved from 2002 at 4% to 2003 at 5%, due largely to high copper prices and new gold production, with the government claiming a 10.6% growth rate for 2004 that was unconfirmed. The unemployment rate for 2005 was 6.7%. Mongolia's economy continued to be heavily impacted by its neighbors, particularly since it imports a large majority of its energy and oil from Russia. Mongolian economy also largely consists or a 'black' or 'gray' market. The World Bank estimated that this underground economy is equal to or greater than the official economic statistics. Mongolia, which joined the World Trade Organization in 1997, seeks to expand its participation and integration into Asian regional economic and trade regimes.

Due to stagnant unemployment and poverty, Bagabandi made an increased effort to align Mongolia with the international community. Bilateral talks were held in China and the United States in 2004 which led to increased trade and cooperation. The United States is particularly interested in Mongolia due to its strategic geographical position and that it holds relations with North Korea. Mongolia also reopened relations with Russia, due mainly to the Russian decision to resolve a large portion of Soviet-era debt. This allowed Mongolia to fully pay off all debt to Russia in 2004.

MPRP candidate Nambariin Enkhbayar was elected president in May 2005. He won 53.4% of the vote, thereby avoiding a runoff election. His closest rival, Mendsaikhan Enkhsaikhan of the Democratic Party, took 20%. Enkhbayar's declared that the largest problem during his tenure would be the poverty experienced by many Mongolians; over of the population lives in poverty.

GOVERNMENT

A new constitution went into effect 12 February 1992, replacing the 1960 constitution and completing Mongolia's transition from a single-party state to a multiparty, parliamentary form of government. At that time, the country's name was officially changed from "Mongolian People's Republic" to "Mongolia." Suffrage is universal at age 18. The unicameral legislature, the State Great Hural (SGH), has 76 members, who are elected by district to four-year terms. The SGH meets twice each year. It can enact and amend laws, set domestic and foreign policy, ratify international agreements, and declare a state of emergency.

A president, the head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces, is selected by direct, popular vote for a four-year term, with a limit of two terms. The president nominates the prime minister and can call for the dissolution of the government, initiate and veto legislation (subject to override by two-thirds vote of the SGH), and issue decrees which take effect with the signature of the prime minister.

A prime minister, the head of government, is nominated by the president and confirmed by the SGH to a four-year term. The prime minister selects a cabinet which must be confirmed by the SGH. The government dissolves when the prime minister resigns, when half the cabinet resigns simultaneously, or upon a vote for dissolution by the SGH.

POLITICAL PARTIES

The Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP), which had been the single ruling party since 1924, legalized opposition parties in 1990. In addition to the MPRP, major parties prior to the 2004 elections included the Motherland Democratic Party (MDP), which included the Mongolian National Democratic Party (MNDP), the Mongolian Social Democratic Party (MSDP), the Green Party (NYAM), and the Mongolian Democratic Party of Believers (MDPB); Mongolian Conservative Party (MCP); Democratic Power Coalition, which included the Mongolian Democratic Renaissance Party (MDRP) and Mongolian People's Party (MPP); Mongolian National Solidarity Party (MNSP); Bourgeois Party/Capitalist Party; United Heritage Party (UHP), which included the United Party of Herdsman and Farmers, Independence Party; Traditional United Conservative Party, and Mongolian United Private Property Owners Party; and the Mongolian Workers Party.

In the first election for the State Great Hural (SGH) 28 June 1992, the MPRP won 56.9% of the vote and 71 of 76 seats in the SGH. In the first direct presidential election, 6 June 1993, President Punsalmaagiyn Ochirbat (first elected president 3 September 1990) was reelected with 58% of the vote. A former member of the MPRP, Ochirbat defeated that party's candidate, running as head of a coalition of the SDP and MNDP.

In the elections of 30 June 1996, the Democratic Union Coalition (which included the MNDP, the MSDP, and two smaller parties) defeated the MPRP, winning 50 of 76 seats (an increase of 44 seats). The MPRP won 25 seats, and the remaining seat went to the MCP. The DUC campaign platform included the Mongolia's Contract With Voters, which promised to cut government spending, reduce welfare, and reorganize the transformation of the government.

In the July 2000 parliamentary elections, MRPR candidates won 72 or the 76 seats, with the remaining 4 seats won (one each) by MNDP, the Civil Courage Party or Civil Will Party (CWP) in alliance with the Mongolian Green, the Motherland Alliance (the Mongol Democratic New Socialist Party and the Mongolian Labor Party), and an independent nonpartisan candidate.

General elections held in 2004 resulted in an impasse, as neither the MPRP or nor the main opposition, the Motherland Democratic Party (MDP), held the 39 seats required to form a government. The MPRP was dealt a devastating blow with a reduction in parliamentary seats from 72 to 36. Electoral fraud was suspected on the part of the MDC and a recount was ordered. Parliament was not able to meet for the first half of 2004 as neither side wished to pursue legislation while the electoral investigation was ongoing. In August, the MPRP formed a coalition with the MDC and Tsakhilganiin Elbegdorj retained his post of prime minister for a second term.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Mongolia administratively consists of 21 provinces (aymag ), divided into 334 counties (soums) and lesser administrative units called baghs, as well as one autonomous city, Ulaanbaatar, which is divided into districts and horoos. Each level of local administration has its own legislative body, or hural. These hurals nominate the provincial governors, who are then appointed by the prime minister.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

Prior to the 1992 constitution, justice was administered through a Supreme Court elected by the People's Great Hural; province and city courts, elected by the corresponding assemblies of people's deputies; and lower courts. The 17-member Supreme Court remains the highest judicial body with a Constitutional Court vested with sole authority for constitutional review. The local courts (people's courts) handle most routine civil and criminal cases. Provincial courts hear more serious cases and review local court decisions. The Supreme Court hears appeals from the local and provincial courts. The old specialized military justice and railway courts have been abolished. All courts are now organized under a single unified national system.

The General Council of Courts nominates and the president appoints the lower and the Supreme Court judges. The new constitution provides for a completely independent judiciary. It also promises procedural due process rights to a fair trial, legal assistance, right to appeal, and access to requests for pardons.

A 1999 media law banned censorship of public information, and many independent newspapers and media outlets exist. However, to the extreme poverty in the country, the main source of news is the state-owned Radio Mongolia. Internet access and Western news media are available in all major cities and not hampered by government censorship. Parliamentary meetings are also broadcast to the public.

Trade unions are legal, although with the continued sale of many state factories, membership in trade unions has declined to approximately one-half the population in 2005. Strikes and collective bargaining are legal except in what the government considers "essential sectors", which are transportation, law enforcement and utilities.

The constitution bars arbitrary arrest, although this continued to occur. Prisoners also report beatings and torture while in detention. Deaths in prison are reported, although this is most likely due to disease exacerbated by poor conditions like lack of food, heat and medical services. Mongolia vowed to concentrate resources on prison reform by 2010.

Military service is mandatory for all men aged 1828 for 12 months. In 2003 the army had approximately 7,500 soldiers and the Air Defense Force had about 800 personnel.

Mongolia is a member of most international organizations including the United Nations, International Court of Justice and the World Trade Organization.

ARMED FORCES

In 2005, Mongolia's armed forces had 8,600 active personnel, with reserves of 137,000. The Army had 7,500 personnel, whose equipment included 370 main battle tanks, 120 reconnaissance vehicles, 310 armored infantry fighting vehicles, 150 armored personnel carriers, and 570 artillery pieces. The Air Force had 800 personnel whose major equipment included 11 attack helicopters and 9 fixed wing transport aircraft. Paramilitary forces consisted of a border guard numbering 6,000 and 1,200 internal security troops. Mongolia's defense budget in 2005 totaled $17.6 million.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Admitted to the United Nations on 27 October 1961, Mongolia participates in ESCAP and several nonregional specialized agencies, such as the FAO, IAEA, ILO, IMF, UNESCO, UNIDO, WHO, and the World Bank. It is a member of the WTO, the Asian Development Bank, the Colombo Plan, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the ASEAN Regional Forum, the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council, and the G-77. Mongolia is a partner in the OSCE and an observer of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), an agreement signed in June 2001 between the leaders of China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan to fight terrorism and ethnic and religious militancy while promoting trade.

The principal ally of Mongolia was the former USSR, which provided substantial economic and military assistance over the years. In 1986, the MPR made efforts toward normalizing relations with China, which had become strained after the expulsion of Chinese laborers in 1983, by establishing the first five-year trade agreement between the two countries, restoring air service and improving rail service between them, and exchanging consular delegations for the first time. In the 1990s, Mongolia expanded its political and financial relationships with the United States, Japan, and the European Union. However, it remains dependent upon Russia and China for the development of its economy and trade. Mongolia is part of the Nonaligned Movement.

In environmental cooperation, Mongolia is part of the Basel Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, Ramsar, CITES, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change, and Desertification.

ECONOMY

After 70 years as a centrally planned economy, Mongolia has undergone a difficult transition towards a free market system since 1990. With the help of active government promotion, the country's industrial sector grew steadily for several decades, expanding from 7% of the national income in 1940 to 35% by 1997, as agriculture's share of total production declined from 79% to 31%. Despite these changes, animal husbandry has remained a dominant sector of the economy, with live animals and animal products accounting for a major share of exports, and livestock providing much of the raw material processed in the country's industrial sector. Total Soviet assistance at the height of Soviet support amounted to 30% of GDP. A number of factors, including the sudden cessation of economic aid from the former Soviet Union and allied countries, the disruption of trade with traditional trading partners, as well as a severe winter in 1990/91, caused a steep decline in the country's economic activity in the early 1990s. The annual growth rate of the GDP dropped steeply from 8.3% to -9.5% in 1992, and -3% in 1993.

Despite these difficulties, the government continued its economic transformation program involving the privatization of most previously state-owned enterprises and other policy reforms. In 1994, GDP grew by 2.3%, followed by further increases of 6.3% in 1995, 2.6% in 1996, 4% in 1997, 3.5% in 1998, 3.2% in 1999, 1.1% in 2000 and 1.4% in 2001. Although the economy has grown steadily since 1994, the economic wellbeing of most people is still in decline. Inflation reached a peak of over 325% in 1992, accelerating faster than wages, but dropping to about 4% in 1995. In 1999, inflation jumped to 10%, and was at 8% and 8.1% in 2000 and 2001. Development of the country's rich oil and mineral resources continues to be a high priority, and negotiations for the exploitation of oil, gold and rare earth elements with foreign companies are being actively pursued.

The GDP growth rate was 6.0% in 2004, up from 5.1% in 2003, and 3.9% in 2002; in 2005, the economy was expected to expand by 5.5%. This growth was mainly fueled by higher commodity prices (for gold, copper, etc.) requested from Mongolia's main trading partnerChina. Inflation, reduced to insignificant levels in 20020.9%, started growing again in 2003 (5.1%), and 2004 (8.7%). The unemployment rate reached 14.2% in 2003, but it is believed that a large part of the jobless population is actually employed by the grey economy.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Mongolia's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $6.0 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $2,200. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 5.5 %. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 11%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 20.6% of GDP, industry 21.4%, and services 58%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $56 million or about $23 per capita and accounted for approximately 4.4% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $247 million or about $100 per capita and accounted for approximately 19.7% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Mongolia totaled $894 million or about $361 per capita based on a GDP of $1.3 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings.

It was estimated that in 2004 about 36.1% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

In 2003 (the latest year for which data was available), the workforce was estimated at 1.488 million people. Of that total that same year, 42% were involved in agriculture/herding, 4% in mining, 6% in manufacturing, 14% in trade, 29% in services, 5% in the public sector and 3.7% in undefined occupations. In 2003, unemployment was put at 6.7%. A shortage of skilled labor has required the procurement of a large supplementary workforce from the former USSR and Eastern Europe.

The right to organize trade unions and professional organizations is granted by the 1990 constitution. In that year, the Association of Free Trade Unions, (AFTU) which includes about 70 unions, was chartered. In 2002, there were 400,000 unionized workers, amounting to less than 50% of the workforce. Nonessential workers have a right to strike.

According to the labor code, the working week is fixed at 40 hours, and for those under 18, at 36 hours. Children as young as 14 or 15 may work with parental permission. In reality, regulations regarding child labor are not effectively enforced. The legal minimum wage was less than $25 per month in 2002, although most workers earned in excess of this amount.

AGRICULTURE

As of 2003, cropland amounted to 1,200,000 hectares (2,965,000 acres), up from only 1,160,000 hectares (2,866,000 acres) in 1979; the cultivated area represents only 1% of potentially arable land. The high altitude, temperature extremes, long winters, and low precipitation provide limited potential for agricultural development. Crop production accounts for 3% of all employment.

Shortages of fuels and parts for agricultural equipment caused crop production to decline by 70% during the 1990s. Principal crops produced in 2004 (in 1,000 tons) included: wheat, 150; barley, 2.5; potatoes, 67; and vegetables, 44. Trade in agricultural products in 2004 consisted of $173.6 million in imports and $62.7 million in exports.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Animal husbandry is the backbone of Mongolia's economy, employing some 160,000 persons. After Mongolia became the world's second communist country in 1924, many nomads settled down to raise livestock on state-owned collectives. The end of communist rule in 1990 brought the resurgence of traditional animal herding methods. Pastures constitute about 75% of the national territory. In 2005 there were 11,686,000 sheep, 12,238,000 goats, 1,842,000 cattle, 2,005,000 horses, 257,000 camels, and some 6,000 hogs. The goat population increased by over one million in 1994/95, due to a boom in the cashmere industry. The meat produced in 2005 was 195,400 tons. Because of the harsh climate, Mongolians consume much fat and meat during winter, and dairy products in the summer.

Mongols claim that the Mongolian thoroughbred is the progenitor of many breeds of race horses worldwide; furthermore, its stamina and speed over long distances surpass Arabic and Akhaltec racers. The Mongolian Horse Association was founded in February 1989 in Zunmod to increase the population and preserve traditional horse-breeding techniques, which were largely being forgotten over the past three decades.

Hunting remains an important commercial activity, with furs and skins the chief products. In 2005, production of skins and hides was estimated at 19,800 tons from sheepskins and 11,200 tons from cattle hides.

FISHING

Fishing is not a significant industry in Mongolia. The total catch in 2003 was 130 tons.

FORESTRY

Forests cover about 6.8% of the total territory of Mongolia, mainly in the area around Hövsgöl Lake. It is estimated that the country's total timber resources represent at least 1.25 billion cu m (44 billion cu ft). Birch, cedar, larch, and fir trees predominate. In 2004, the timber cut was 6.631 million cu m (222.7 million cu ft), with 29% burned as fuel. The lumber industry yielded 300,000 cu m of sawn wood that year.

MINING

Mongolia was the world's third-largest producer of fluorspar and among the top three producers in Asia and the Pacific of copper and molybdenum. In 2004, Mongolia exported nearly all of its copper and molybdenum concentrates, while fluorspar was sent to Japan and Russia. Construction, mining (of coal, copper, molybdenum fluorspar, and gold), and oil were Mongolia's top three industries. Geological surveys have uncovered deposits of some 80 minerals, which were largely untapped. Also produced in 2004 were cement, hydrated lime, quicklime, varieties of stone, and silica. Most mining operations were in the eastern and north-central regions, including the Erdenet copper mining center.

Output in 2004 included (in metric tons): mine copper (metal content), 130,000; fluorspar (including acid grade and sub-metallurgical), 295,000; mine molybdenum, 1,411; gypsum, 25,000; and mine tungsten, 40,000 (estimated). Gold output for 2004 was 18,600 kg, up from 11,119 kg in 2003. Gold mining increased significantly in the 1990s, and the number of companies engaged in gold mining grew to more than 100; total reserves were estimated to be 2,000 tons gold in 17 regions, the most important being Naran, Tolgoi, and Zamar. No tin was mined in 1999 and 2000, or in 2004. Uranium production ceased after 1997. The Erdenet copper-molybdenum mine, completed in 1981, was developed by the state in cooperation with the former USSR, and was 51% owned by the Mongolian government and 49%, by the Russian government. Clay, gold, gypsum, limestone, molybdenum, salt, sand and gravel, silver, precious stones, and tungsten were also mined by small operations.

Mongolia's gross domestic product (GDP) in 2004 totaled $1.5 billion. The country's minerals sector accounted for around 17.3% of GDP that year. The government encouraged foreign investment and adopted a number of long-term programs to explore for and develop metallic and nonmetallic minerals. Ivanhoe Mines Ltd. estimated that the Oyu Tolgoy had as much as 750 million tons of copper and gold resources. The Tsagaan Suvraga porphyry copper deposit, in southwestern Sayanshand City, in the northern part of the Ulaan-Uul structural-formational zone of the south Gobi mineral belt, contained 240 million tons of sulfide ore at a grade of 0.53% copper and 0.018% molybdenum. The government was looking for investors to develop a 500-million-ton iron ore deposit north of Darkhan City.

Parliament-approved guidelines for 200104 would privatize 27 state-owned enterprises and restructure 25 state-owned enterprises and organizations. Copper mining remained state owned. In 1997, the government modified mining laws to increase the land open to exploration to 40%, change policies regarding exploration licenses, and grant tax incentives to promote mining.

ENERGY AND POWER

Mongolia produces only a small amount of oil, no natural gas, and some coal.

In 2004, Mongolia's production of oil averaged 542 barrels per day, while demand and imports each averaged an estimated 11,000 barrels per day in that year. A small amount of oil, averaging an estimated 497 barrels per day, was exported that same year.

All of Mongolia's electricity is produced by conventional thermal power plants. In 2004, electric power output totaled an estimated 2.692 billion kWh, with consumption in that year, an estimated 2.209 billion kWh. Electricity exports and imports in 2004 came to an estimated 8.2 million kWh and 130.5 million kWh, respectively. In 2002, Mongolia's generating capacity was put at 0.901 million kW. Although about half the population is served with electricity, electric power outages in rural areas can last for months.

Mongolia produced 7,081,000 short tons of coal in 2002, of which 86% consisted of brown coal or Lignite, and the remainder bituminous.

INDUSTRY

Small-scale processing of livestock and agricultural products has historically been a mainstay of Mongolia's industrial sector. With the establishment of the Erdenet copper plant in the late 1970s, metal processing also became an important part of the economy. In 1996, industrial output was estimated at t239.3 billion, with production of metals accounting for 32.6%; energy production, 19.1%; processed foods, 15.8%; wool and woolen apparel, 11.5%; mineral fuels, 6.8%; chemicals, 6.7%; and other items, 7.5%. Much of the country's industrial activity is concentrated in four centers: Ulaanbaatar, Erdenet, Darhan, and Choybalsan. Industry employed approximately 74,100 persons in 1996.

Mongolia's industrial development has been severely affected by dwindling imports of fuel, spare parts, and equipment formerly obtained from the former USSR and allied trading partners. As a result, total output from the industrial sector generally declined in the early 1990s, falling by 2.5% in 1996. By 1997, the industrial sector had begun to recover, with growth estimated that year at 4.5%. Industrial growth in 2000 was 2.4%. Industrial production in Mongolia included about 40 different commodities. As of 2002, the production of food, leather, shoes, glass, and garments were on the decline, while production of copper and molybdenum concentrates, coal mining, and the food and beverage industries were increasing. About 72% of the economy had been privatized by 2000.

In 2003, industry made up 21.4% of the economy, with 4% of the labor force being engaged in mining, and 6% in manufacturing; 42% of the working population is still engaged in herding or agriculture. The industrial production growth rate was 4.1% in 2002, slightly higher than the GDP growth rate, and a sign that the industry is an important economic growth fosterer.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The Academy of Sciences, in Ulaanbaatar, was founded in 1921 and reorganized in 1961. It includes departments of agriculture, chemistry and biology, geography and geology, medicine, and technology; and numerous research institutes concerning agriculture, fisheries and veterinary science, medicine, natural sciences, and technology. The Natural History Museum in Ulaanbaatar features Gobi Desert dinosaur eggs and skeletons. The National University of Mongolia, founded in 1942 at Ulaanbaatar, has faculties of mathematics, natural sciences, physics, and biology, and undertakes research with the State Construction Research Institute in pursuit of knowledge related to nuclear physics, biophysics, mineral resources, energy, and communications. The Mongolian Technical University, founded in 1969 at Ulaanbaatar, has schools of power engineering, mechanical engineering, civil engineering, and geology and mining engineering. In 198797, science and engineering students accounted for 24% of college and university enrollments. In 2002, Mongolia's expenditures on research and development (R&D) totaled $11.868 million, or 0.28% of GDP. In that same year, the country had 710 researchers and 72 technicians per million people that were involved in R&D. High technology exports in that year totaled $1 million.

DOMESTIC TRADE

Prior to economic reforms of the early 1990s, consumer goods produced at Ulaanbaatar or imported from abroad were distributed by state marketing agencies to retail outlets in local administrative centers. Prices for all items except consumer services and some luxury goods were set by the government. With steady price liberalization undertaken since 1990, prices are now closely regulated for only a few staples, such as fuel, rice, and flour.

Because the rapid dismantling of the government's centrally planned distribution system proceeded without an effective alternative yet in place, severe supply shortages have been experienced especially in the country's urban centers. To reduce these shortages, a system of public markets has been developed where supplies in excess of targeted deliveries can be sold freely. Commodity exchanges, however, still retain some of the characteristics of a centrally planned economy. Bartering is still common among Mongolia's nomadic population.

As of 2002, wide-spread reform toward privatization was nearly completed and these privately-owned enterprises have begun to show growth in contributions to the economy. The government still seeks foreign investment as a major opportunity to boost and stabilize the domestic economy.

Business hours are generally from 9 am to 6 pm, Monday through Friday.

FOREIGN TRADE

Minerals, mainly copper concentrates and molybdenum, were Mongolia's largest exports. In 1998, exports totaled $316.8 million. The second most important export category includes wool, hides, and skins, followed by consumer goods, mainly manufactured garments. The liberalization and expansion of free trade zones have promoted the export of manufactured goods such as spun wool and cashmere, carpets, leather goods, green tea, canned meat, and light consumer goods. In 1999, imports amounted to $472.4 million. Imports included machinery and equipment, fuels, rice, wheat flour, industrial consumer goods, chemicals, building materials, sugar, and tea.

Although Mongolia continues to depend on the republics of the former USSR (especially Russia) as its dominant trading partners, the country's trading profile has changed greatly since the mid-1980s. In 1985, communist countries, excluding China and North Korea, accounted for 95.5% of Mongolia's exports and 98.1% of its imports. In 1997 Mongolia joined the World Trade Organization. By 1998 Russia accounted for only 12.1% of exports, while their share of imports fell to 30.6%.

CountryExportsImportsBalance
World615.9801.0-185.1
China284.2172.4111.8
United States142.923.5119.4
Russia41.2265.4-224.2
Singapore35.010.424.6
Australia34.519.614.9
United Kingdom26.13.922.2
Italy-San Marino-Holy See9.13.35.8
Japan8.563.4-54.9
Korea, Republic of7.567.7-60.2
Germany4.638.0-33.4
() data not available or not significant.

In 2004, Mongolia's exports totaled $853 million (FOBFree on Board), while its imports grew to $1 billion (CIFCost and Freight). Export commodities included copper, apparel, livestock, animal products, cashmere, wool, hides, fluorspar, and other nonferrous metals, and they mainly went to China (which received 47.8% of total exports), the United States (17.9%), and the United Kingdom (15.7%). Imports chiefly came from Russia (33.3%), China (23.6%), Japan (7.4%), South Korea (6%), and the United States (4.6%), and included machinery and equipment, fuel, cars, food products, industrial consumer goods, chemicals, building materials, sugar, and tea.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Mongolia consistently imports more than it exports. The sudden discontinuance of grants and debt cancellations by the former

Current Account-158.0
     Balance on goods-156.2
         Imports-680.2
         Exports524.0
     Balance on services-81.9
     Balance on income-4.5
     Current transfers84.6
Capital Account
Financial Account157.4
     Direct investment abroad
     Direct investment in Mongolia77.8
     Portfolio investment assets
     Portfolio investment liabilities
     Financial derivatives
     Other investment assets-32.1
     Other investment liabilities111.7
Net Errors and Omissions14.1
Reserves and Related Items-13.4
() data not available or not significant.

Soviet Union devastated the balance of payments position. Subsequently, the IMF in 1993, 1997, and 2001 approved a series of three-year loans to Mongolia, the last due to expire in September 2004.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reported that in 2000 the purchasing power parity of Mongolia's exports was $466.1 million while imports totaled $614.5 million resulting in a trade deficit of $148.4 million.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2001 Mongolia had exports of goods totaling $460 million and imports totaling $549 million. The services credit totaled $86 million and debit $174 million.

Exports of goods and services reached $1.2 billion in 2004, up from $835 million in 2003. Imports grew from $1.1 billion in 2003, to $1.5 billion in 2004. The resource balance was consequently negative in both years, worsening from -$249 million in 2003, to -$303 million in 2004. The current account balance was also negative, slightly improving from -$99 million in 2003, to - $35 million in 2004.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

Before 1924, Mongolia lacked its own banks and currency. Mongolians bartered, using such commodities as livestock, tea, and salt for exchange, or such foreign currencies as the US dollar, the Russian ruble, the British pound, and the Chinese Mexican dollar in commerce. Chinese and Russian banks offered credit, as did monasteries and private moneylenders. The government began to transform this chaotic monetary situation with a series of reforms, starting with the establishment of Mongolbank, or the Mongolian Trade-Industrial Bank, in June 1924. Mongolbank was founded as a Mongolian-Soviet joint-stock company. In February 1925, the tugrik was made the official national currency, and it was slowly introduced into circulation over the next three years. In April 1928, all other currencies were withdrawn from circulation. In 1929, the government drove private moneylenders out of business by establishing a monopoly on foreign trade and outlawing private lending.

In April 1954, the Soviet Union handed over its shares in Mongolbank, which was renamed the State Bank of the Mongolian People's Republic, which remains the official bank of Mongolia. However, economic reforms have allowed the formation of a commercial banking sector. The economic reforms were brought about by the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s.

Mongolia has a two-tier banking system where control of the money supply is invested in the central bank. The Bank of Mongolia has established lending rules the commercial banks must follow. Also, reserve requirements are set by the national bank. In 1991, commercial functions were separated from the Mongol Bank, and two commercial banks were created; by the late 1990s there were 18. On advice from the Asian Development Bank, the government closed a number of banks in 1999 and 2000, leaving 12 in operation in an effort to restructure the two-tier system. In 2000, the World Bank gave Mongolia a loan earmarked for restructuring of its financial systems. Also in that year, foreign exchange reserves reached $123 million. The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand depositsan aggregate commonly known as M1were equal to $142.2 million. In that same year, M2an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual fundswas $301.6 million. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 8.6%.

The Mongolian Securities Exchange opened in August 1995. About 60,000 individuals have opened accounts on the stock market. By 1996, more than 7.8 million shares from 400 companies had been traded and 28,000 contracts concluded; average daily trade volume is 60,00080,000 shares.

INSURANCE

In the 1980s, insurance was offered by the State Directorate for Insurance, or Mongoldaatgal, which was under the control of the Ministry of Finance. The government was planning to introduce health insurance in 1993 as a cooperative effort between individuals, government agencies, and the private sector.

PUBLIC FINANCE

The annual budget is submitted to the People's Great Hural for approval. Privatization did not begin until fiscal year 1990/1991 along with political upheaval. Privatization of large state businesses has begun, as has the implementation of tax reforms. Most small businesses were private as of 2001.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2004 Mongolia's central government took in revenues of approximately $582 million and had expenditures of $602 million. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$20 million. Total external debt was $1.36 billion.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2002, the most recent year for which it had data, central government revenues were t403.22 billion and expenditures were t422.62 billion. Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 32.4%; defense, 5.9%; public order and safety, 3.9%; economic affairs, 21.2%; environmental protection, 0.3%; housing and community amenities, 0.3%; health, 4.7%; recreation, culture, and religion, 2.2%; education, 6.3%; and social protection, 22.8%.

Revenue and Grants403.22100.0%
     Tax revenue207.351.4%
     Social contributions69.9217.3%
     Grants19.314.8%
     Other revenue106.6926.5%
Expenditures422.62100.0%
     General public services137.0332.4%
     Defense24.915.9%
     Public order and safety16.693.9%
     Economic affairs89.6121.2%
     Environmental protection1.470.3%
     Housing and community amenities1.080.3%
     Health19.74.7%
     Recreational, culture, and religion9.12.2%
     Education26.616.3%
     Social protection96.4122.8%
() data not available or not significant.

TAXATION

The turnover tax, for the majority of state revenues, is an indirect sales tax levied at the production stage on all manufactured commodities. Personal taxes consist of income taxes, paid by salaried industrial workers and office employees, and livestock taxes on private herders, based on the number of livestock owned. There is a ceiling of 40% on taxes levied on enterprises with foreign capital. There is also a 13% value-added tax (VAT). Exemptions from the VAT include financial and legal services, leases and rents for dwellings, religious organizations, and public transportation.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

Mongolia collects a general import tariff of 5% and a VAT of 13% on most imported items. However, gold is subject to a 10% VAT, while imports of technological equipment and machinery imported under the country's Law of Foreign Investment are exempt. Customs duties have been insignificant, yielding less than 1% of total state revenues.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

Prior to 1990, no private investments were possible in Mongolia; much of the country's investment capital was derived from government loans and grants provided by the former USSR and allied countries. New government policy and laws since the late 1980s, including the Foreign Investment Law of 1993, provide the legal basis and incentive for foreign investments. In 1994, Mongolia concluded a Bilateral Trade and Investment Agreement (BTIA) with the United States, in 1997 accessed to the WTO, and in 1999 was granted normal trade relations (NTR) status by the United States.

The Foreign Investment and Taxation Laws provide for tax incentives and exemptions for foreign investment. Total income tax exemptions are granted to businesses engaged in infrastructural projects like building power plants, thermal plants, power transmission networks, highways, railways, and air cargo transportation facilities. Mining operations, metallurgy operations, chemicals production, and machinery and electronics manufacturing receive a 10-year tax holiday, and 50% tax exemption for the next five years. Companies that export more than 50% of production receive a three-year tax holiday, and 50% tax exemption for another three years.

Thus far, private foreign capital remains a small source of investment in the country. Mongolia's lack of infrastructure remains an impediment to foreign investment. A north-south paved road running from Russia to China and through the capital was completed with finance from the Asian Development Bank (ADB) but Mongolia still lacks an eastwest highway. As of July 2000, cumulative foreign investment in Mongolia totaled $308.4 million. The biggest source has been China, including Hong Kong ($86 million), followed by Japan ($47.5 million), South Korea ($30.4 million), the United States ($27.1 million), Russia ($15.5 million), and Canada ($9.3 million). The sector attracting the most foreign direct investment (FDI) has been mining (24%), followed by light industry (19.6%); raw material processing, including cashmere (10.9%); trade and catering (6.4%); construction (6.3%); banking and financial services (5.4%) and telecommunications (5.0%). Leading investors include Sumitomo Corporation and Komatsu of Japan; Korean Telecom; and SOCO Oil, Caterpillar, and Nescor of the United States.

Although the Mongolian government openly welcomes foreign investments (albeit, it favors a series of key industries, like banking and cashmere production), there are reports of corruption at the level of individual agencies and the judiciary that hinder the free flow of capital.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

In the past, Mongolia operated on the basis of a planned economy, with five-year plans implemented from 1947 until 1990, with assistance from the former USSR and China. In 1990, with the establishment of a new consensus government, there followed a three-year plan that aimed for achieving greater efficiency in the allocation of resources and a diversified economic base by undertaking a sustained transition to a free market economy. The change was a fundamental shift, as the government relinquished its role as the primary factor in the economy and began limiting itself to policies supporting a market-oriented economy. Main components of the government's program include privatization of state enterprises, price liberalization, changes in national law, and an action plan for environmental protection. Current plans specify development of the country's energy and mining sectors, and further action in environmental protection as well as continued reforms in a number of areas including fiscal management, land tenure, and social benefit entitlements.

In 1996, the initial phase of privatization of state property was completed. According to the government, 100% of small- and medium-sized enterprises were privatized as well as 97% of the country's livestock. In 2000, the private sector accounted for 72% of GDP. At the end of the 1990s, however, the government's commitment to privatization and market reforms appeared to be weakening. However, the government that took office in August 2000 renewed the effort at gaining macroeconomic stability and restoring the momentum for reform. In September 2001, the administration entered into a three-year arrangement with the IMF under its Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) supported by stand-by funds of sdr28.49 million (about $40 million). In a 2002 review, the IMF commended the government on progress made to contain inflation, but noted that improvements were needed in fiscal transparency and accountability.

In July 2002, a pledge meeting of the Consultative Group (CG) for Mongolia, consisting of donors from 20 countries and 18 international organizations in addition to representatives of various civil and private organizations, agreed on the importance of the government's addressing governance issues: ensuring accountability, promoting transparency, controlling corruption, reforming the judiciary and strengthening the rule of law. Priority areas of action stressed were energy and information and communications technology (ICT), as well as preparation of a long-term strategy for rural development. The donors pledged $333 million in support of Mongolia's development efforts in 2003.

Economic development strategies were expected to be less successful if they focused only on the national economy of Mongolia, outside of the political, geographical, and economic context it finds itself in. The country was still heavily dependent on trade with its neighbors (most of the petroleum products and a substantial part of its electric power are imported from Russia, while most of its exports are going to China), and as such will find it hard to develop an endogenous growth strategy. The large gray economy (some specialists think this is almost as large as the real economy), corruption, and a weak law and regulatory system are some of the factors that could hamper the country's economic expansion. Market opportunities include mining, construction, tourism, and meat processing.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

The social insurance program provides for free medical services, benefits for temporary disability, and pensions for permanent disability and old age.

Women have equal rights and freedoms under Mongolian law, with the exception of a law barring them from hazardous work. Women account for approximately half of the work force, generally receive equal pay for equal work, and many hold mid-level government and professional jobs. Domestic abuse and violence remain serious problems. New laws went into effect in 2005 to combat domestic violence.

Although the government generally respects the human rights of its citizens, there are reports of mistreatment of detainees and prisoners. Human rights organizations operate openly in Mongolia.

HEALTH

Health care is administered under state auspices and all medical and hospital services are free. The government gives special priority to increasing the number of physicians and other health personnel and expanding facilities in rural areas. Each province has at least two hospitals and each agricultural cooperative and state farm has a medical station. As of 2004, there were an estimated 267 physicians, 305 nurses, 18 dentists, and 31 pharmacists per 100,000 people. Most Mongolians had access to health services. In 2000, 60% of the population had access to safe drinking water and 30% had adequate sanitation. Health expenditures were 4.7% of the GDP.

Average life expectancy in 2005 was an estimated 64.52 years (up from 45 years in 1950). Pulmonary and bronchial infections, including tuberculosis and brucellosis, are widespread but are being brought under control through the use of ayrag, an indigenous drink brewed from horse milk and possessing demonstrated healing qualities. Cholera, smallpox, typhus, and other epidemic diseases have been virtually eliminated. Immunization rates for children up to one year of age were as follows: tuberculosis, 90%; diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 78%; polio, 87%; and measles, 80%. Rates for DPT and measles were, respectively, 94% and 93%.

The general mortality rate was estimated at seven per 1,000 people as of 2002. In 2005, the infant mortality rate was 53.79 per 1,000 live births. At least 30.4% of children had goiter. About 25% of children under five years of age were malnourished and 11% of births were of low birth weight. Maternal mortality in 2003 was 65 per 100,000 live births. The total fertility rate decreased steadily from 5.4 in 1980 to 2.6 per woman in 2000.

The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 0.10 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 500 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 200 deaths from AIDS in 2003.

HOUSING

Although there are many stone and wood buildings in Ulaanbaatar and some of the larger provincial centers, the traditional housing structure is the ger, a tent-like wooden frame structure covered in woolen felt. In 2002, about 49% of the population lived in gers. Approximately 57% of the population lived in Ulaanbaatar, where large apartment-house complexes with stores, services, and cultural facilities were being built to house the growing urban population. Apartments are the primary residence for urban dwellers.

The Asian Development Bank has sponsored a loan program to support housing construction in the nation. Within the country itself, groups focusing on housing issues include the Citizen's Representatives Meeting of Ulaanbaatar, the Tsast Impex Company, and the joint Mongolian-Chinese Bogda Holding Company.

EDUCATION

The 1991 Education Law introduced a number of changes in the system. The traditional Mongolian script was to be introduced from the first grade, and teaching of English in all schools was made compulsory. Nonformal education offered by private institutions was also given due importance and recognition.

Eight years of schooling is compulsory starting at age eight, and free of charge. Primary school covers four years of study, followed by four years of junior secondary school and two years of upper secondary school. There are technical and vocational schools, which admit students after their primary education is complete. Many children in rural areas are withdrawn from school in order to work at home. An absence of heat in many rural schools is also a problem that may contribute to poor enrollment levels. More than 70% of students from rural areas reside in dormitories adjoining the schools. The academic year runs from September to July.

In 2001, about 31% of children between the ages of three and seven were enrolled in some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 79% of age-eligible students. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 77% of age-eligible students; 72% for boys and 83% for girls. It is estimated that nearly all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 31:1 in 2003; the ratio for secondary school was about 22:1.

While higher and professional education is not free, tuition fees for poor students are subsidized by the government. The Mongolian State University, in Ulaanbaatar, was founded in 1942 and includes faculties in the social sciences, trade, and philology, as well as in science and technology. The Ministry of Science, Technology, Education and Culture (MOSTEC) is responsible for higher education. In 2003, about 37% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in some type of higher education program; 28% for men and 47% for women. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 97.8%.

As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 9% of GDP.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

The Mongolian State University has a library of 350,000 volumes. The State Central Library of Mongolia, which is under the jurisdiction of the Academy of Sciences, contains four million volumes in Mongolian, Chinese, English, French, German, Manchu, Russian, Tibetan, and other languages. It also has a collection of valuable Buddhist manuscripts, including a 335-volume Buddhist encyclopedia. In 1991, the country opened a college of business and commerce, which houses a library of 21,000 volumes. Also that year, it opened the College of Economics with 40,000 volumes. The Library of the State Great Hural of Mongolia, established in 1992, serves the members of parliament, with holdings of about 40,000 volumes and subscriptions of over 100 periodicals per year. Ulaanbaatar City Central Library was established in 1980 and has over 500,000 items.

The State Central Museum, containing art treasures and antiquities, the Museum of National History, the Ulaanbaatar Museum (a public affairs museum), the Fine Arts Museum, and the Museum of Religion, all in Ulaanbaatar, are under the jurisdiction of the Academy of Sciences. Also in the capital are the Mongolian National Modern Art Gallery, opened in 1989, and the Palace Museum, in the home of Bodg Geegen, former head of state and leader of the Buddhist Church of Mongolia. The Zanabazar Museum of Fine Art features collections of native artists. The Theater Museum opened in 1991.

MEDIA

In 2003, there were an estimated 56 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people; about 35,600 people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. The same year, there were approximately 130 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

Radio broadcasting began in the MPR in 1934. Radio Ulaanbaatar broadcasts programs in Mongolian, Russian, Chinese, English, French, and Kazakh. Mongel Telev 12, which transmits locally produced programs, and a satellite station are also located in Ulaanbaatar. There are several independent stations. In 2004 there were 7 AM and 62 FM radio stations. In 2003, there were an estimated 50 radios and 81 television sets for every 1,000 people. About 20.5 of every 1,000 people were cable subscribers. Also in 2003, there were 77.3 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 58 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There were five secure Internet servers in the country in 2004.

The newspapers of the MPR (together with the organizations that publish them) include Unen (Central Committee of the MPRP, 1999 circulation 170,000); Ardyn Erh (Mongolian Great Hural and Cabinet, circulation 77,500); Novosti Mongoliy (the Mongolian News Agency); Hodolmor, the organ of the trade unions; Dzaluuchuudyn Unen (Central Committee of the Mongolian Revolutionary Youth League); Shine Hodoo (Ministry of Agriculture and the Supreme Council of the Federation of Agricultural Cooperatives); Utga Dzohiol Urlag (the Union of Mongolian Writers and the Ministry of Culture); and Ulaan Od (Ministry of Defense and the Ministry of Public Security). Also published are 41 periodicals, including Namyn Am'dral, a journal of the Central Committee of the MPRP, and Shinjleh Uhaan Am'dral, a bimonthly publication of the Mongolian Academy of Sciences.

The constitution provides for freedom of expression, including free speech and a free press, and the government is said to respect these rights in practice.

ORGANIZATIONS

The Mongolian National Chamber of Commerce and Industry is in Ulan Bator.

Mongolia's mass organizations, all of which work closely with the MPRP, include the Mongolian Revolutionary Youth League (founded in 1922), Mongolian Pioneers' Organization, Committee of Mongolian Women (founded in 1933), and Mongolian-Soviet Friendship Society (founded in 1947).

Other youth organizations include the Union of Mongolian Students, Junior Chamber, and the Scout Association of Mongolia. There are several sports associations in the country promoting competition amongst amateur athletes. Another nongovernment women's organization is the Women's Information and Research Center.

Professional and cultural organizations include the Mongolia Academy of Science, the Union of Mongolian Artists, the Union of Mongolian Composers, the Mongolian Association for Lawyers, the Union of Mongolian Journalists, the Union of Mongolian Writers, and the Union of Mongolian Philatelists.

Social action organizations are the Mongolian Committee for Afro-Asian Solidarity, Mongolian Union for Peace and Friendship Organizations, and Mongolian Committee for the Defense of Peace. There are national chapters of the Red Cross Society, Amnesty International, Habitat for Humanity, and Caritas.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Points of interest include the largest monastery in Mongolia, Gandan Lamasery in Ulaanbaatar, and the ruined city of Karakorum, once the capital of the Mongol Empire. Mongolia offers abundant and varied scenery, including forests, steppes, lakes, and deserts, and a wide variety of wildlife. The national sports of Mongolia are wrestling, archery, and horse racing. Mongols also participate in boxing and sumo wrestling.

A valid passport is required for entry into Mongolia, an onward/return ticket, and a visa if staying of more than 90 days. In 2003, about 201,000 tourists visited Mongolia. Tourist expenditure receipts totaled $154 million that same year. Despite the birth of multiparty democracy in the 1990s, Mongolia has not encouraged tourism. Tourist facilities are in short supply, and prices are high.

According to the US Department of State, the estimated cost of staying in Ulaanbaatar in 2004 was $200 per day.

FAMOUS MONGOLIANS

A long line of Mongol khans have left their mark on history ever since Temujin, or Genghis Khan (11621227), set up the first Mongol empire in 1206. Outstanding among them were Kublai Khan (121694), a grandson of Genghis, who conquered most of China; Hulagu Khan (121760), a brother of Kublai, who conquered Persia and Syria; Batu Khan (d.1255), Kublai's cousin, who overran Russia, Poland, and Hungary; Timur, also known as Timur Lenk ("Timur the Lame") or Tamerlane (1336?1405), a descendant of Genghis, who extended his military power for short periods into southern Russia, India, and the Levant; and Babur (Zahir ad-Din Muhammad, 14831530), a descendant of Timur, who established an empire in India.

In recent times, two national leaders were Sukhe Baatar (18941923) and Khorloin Choybalsan (18951952). Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal (191691), intermittently general secretary of the Central Committee of the MPRP since 1940, became chairman of the Council of Ministers in 1952, was elected chairman of the Presidium of the People's Great Hural in 1974, and was named the MPRP general secretary in 1981. Jambyn Batmunkh (192697) became chairman of the Council of Ministers in 1974 and was elected chairman of the Presidium and general secretary of the MPRP in 1984. Natsagiyn Bagabandi (b.1950) was the president of Mongolia from 1997 to 2005; he was succeeded by Nambaryn Enkhbayar (b.1958), who was prime minister from 200004.

The founder of modern Mongolian literature is D. Natsagdorj (190637). Tsendyn Damdinsuren (190886) is one of the most important writers. Leading playwrights are Ch. Oydov (191763) and E. Oyuun (19182001). Other prominent writers are B. Rindhen (190578), D. Namdag (191182), U. Ulambayar (b.1911), and Ch. Lodoydamba (191770). B. Damdinsuren (191992) and L. Murdorzh are noted composers. Jugderdemidiyn Gurragcha (b.1947) became the first Mongolian in space in 1981, when he was carried into orbit aboard the former USSR's Soyuz 39.

DEPENDENCIES

The MPR has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hanson, Jennifer. Mongolia. New York: Facts On File, 2004.

Hoare, Jim and Susan Pares. A Political and Economic Dictionary of East Asia. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2005.

Kotkin, Stephen and Bruce A. Elleman (ed.). Mongolia in the Twentieth Century: Landlocked Cosmopolitan. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1999.

Mongolia in Transition. Surrey, England: Curzon, 1996.

Nordby, Judith. Mongolia. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Clio, 1993.

Poverty and the Transition to a Market Economy in Mongolia. New York: St. Martin's, 1995.

Sanders, Alan J. K. Historical Dictionary of Mongolia. 2nd ed. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow, 2003.

Soucek, Svatopluk. A History of Inner Asia. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000.

Mongolia

views updated May 18 2018

Mongolia

PROFILE
PEOPLE
HISTORY
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS
ECONOMY
FOREIGN RELATIONS
U.S.-MONGOLIAN RELATIONS
TRAVEL

Compiled from the July 2007 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:

Mongolia

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 1,566,500 sq. km. (604,103 sq. mi.); slightly larger than Alaska (land boundaries 8,114 km.).

Terrain: Almost 90% of land area is pasture or desert, of varying usefulness; 1% arable; 9% forested.

Climate: Continental, with little precipitation and sharp seasonal fluctuations.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Mongolian(s).

Population: (2006 est.) 2.59 million.

Annual growth rate: (2006) 1.3%.

Health: (2006) Infant mortality rate—19.1/1,000. Life expectancy—65.85 yrs.

Ethnic groups: (2004) 85% Mongol (predominantly Khalkha), 7% Turkic (largest group, Kazakh) 4.6% Tungusic, and 3.4% others, including Chinese and Russian.

Languages: Mongolian, Kazakh, Russian, and English.

Religions: Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism 94%, Muslim 6% (primarily in the southwest), and Shamanism.

Education: Years compulsory—8 (provided free by the government). Literacy—more than 90%.

Government

Type: Multiparty parliamentary form of government.

Independence: gained in 1921; in 1990, democratic reform begun and shift from dependence on the former Soviet Union declared.

Constitution: 1960 and February 12, 1992.

Government branches: Executive—power is divided between a president (elected by a popular election in May 2005) and prime minister (current cabinet nominated by the prime minister was approved in January 2006 by the State Great Hural, which was elected in June 2004). Legislative—State Great Hural (76 deputies). Judicial—Constitutional Court is empowered to supervise the implementation of the constitution, makes judgment on the violation of its provisions, and solves disputes. Legal code based on Continental and Russian law. Legal education at Mongolian State Univ. and private universities. Mongolia accepts ICJ jurisdiction.

Political parties: 15 announced political parties (15 listed under “Government” section).

Suffrage: Universal at 18.

Political subdivisions: 21 aimags (provinces) and one city (Ulaanbaatar).

Economy

GDP in PPP: (2006 est.) $6.23 billion.

GDP growth: (2006) 8.4%. Per capita GDP in PPP: (2006 est.) $2,402.

Natural resources: Coal, copper, molybdenum, iron, phosphates, tin, nickel, zinc, wolfram, fluorspar, gold, uranium, and petroleum.

Agriculture: (18.8% of 2006 GDP, livelihood for about 40% of population) Products—livestock and byproducts, hay fodder, vegetables.

Industry: (38.3% of 2006 GDP, includes mining 30%, manufacturing 5.8%, and utilities (electricity, gas, and water) 2.5%) Types—Minerals (primarily copper and gold), animal-derived products, building materials, food/beverage.

Trade: (2006) Total turnover of foreign trade for 2006 was $3,028.4 million. Exports—$1,542.8 million: minerals, livestock, animal products, and textiles. Markets—Asian countries (70.4%), European countries (10.7%), and countries of American continent (18.8%). Imports—$1,485.6 million: machinery and equipment, fuels, food products, industrial consumer goods, chemicals, building equipment, vehicles, textiles. Suppliers—91 countries account for 93.2% of total imports, of which European countries (47.4%) and Asian countries (47.2%).

Aid received: From 1990-2004, official development assistance to Mongolia from bilateral and multilateral donors was $2.7 billion. Fiscal year: Calendar year.

PEOPLE

Life in sparsely populated Mongolia has recently become more urbanized. Nearly half of the people live in the capital, Ulaanbaatar, and in other provincial centers. Semi-nomadic life still predominates in the countryside, but settled agricultural communities are becoming more common. Mongolia's birth rate is estimated at 19 births/1000 people (2006). About two-thirds of the total population is under age 30, 28.5% of whom are under 14.

Ethnic Mongols account for about 85% of Mongolia's population and consist of Khalkha and other groups, all distinguished primarily by dialects of the Mongol language. Mongol is an Altaic language—from the Altaic Mountains of Central Asia, a language family comprising the Turkic, Tungusic, and Mongolic subfamilies—and is related to Turkic (Uzbek, Turkish, and Kazakh), Korean, and, possibly, Japanese. Among ethnic Mongols, the Khalkha comprise 90% and the remaining 10% include Durbet Mongols in the north and Dariganga Mongols in the east. Turkic speakers (Kazakhs, Turvins, and Khotans) constitute 7% of Mongolia's population, and the rest are Tungusic-speakers, Chinese, and Russians. Most Russians left the country following the withdrawal of economic aid and collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. Traditionally, Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism was the predominant religion. However, it was suppressed under the communist regime until 1990, with only one showcase monastery allowed to remain. Since 1990, as liberalization began, Buddhism has enjoyed a resurgence. About 4 million ethnic Mongols live outside Mongolia; about 3.4 million live in China, mainly in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, and some 500,000 live in Russia, primarily in Buryatia and Kalmykia.

HISTORY

In 1206 AD, a single Mongolian state was formed based on nomadic tribal groupings under the leadership of Chinggis (“Genghis”) Khan. He and his immediate successors conquered nearly all of Asia and European Russia and sent armies as far as central Europe and Southeast Asia. Chinggis Khan's grandson Kublai Khan, who conquered China and established the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368 AD), gained fame in Europe through the writings of Marco Polo.

Although Mongol-led confederations sometimes exercised wide political power over their conquered territories, their strength declined rapidly after the Mongol dynasty in China was overthrown in 1368. The Manchus, a tribal group which conquered China in 1644 and formed the Qing dynasty, were able to bring Mongolia under Manchu control in 1691 as Outer Mongolia when the Khalkha Mongol nobles swore an oath of allegiance to the Manchu emperor. The Mongol rulers of Outer Mongolia enjoyed considerable autonomy under the Manchus, and all Chinese claims to Outer Mongolia following the establishment of the republic have rested on this oath. In 1727, Russia and Manchu China concluded the Treaty of Khiakta, delimiting the border between China and Mongolia that exists in large part today.

Outer Mongolia was a Chinese province (1691-1911), an autonomous state under Russian protection (1912-19), and again a Chinese province (1919-21). As Manchu authority in China waned, and as Russia and Japan confronted each other, Russia gave arms and diplomatic support to nationalists among the Mongol religious leaders and nobles. The Mongols accepted Russian aid and proclaimed their independence of Chinese rule in 1911, shortly after a successful Chinese revolt against the Manchus. By agreements signed in 1913 and 1915, the Russian Government forced the new Chinese Republican Government to accept Mongolian autonomy under continued Chinese control, presumably to discourage other foreign powers from approaching a newly independent Mongolian state that might seek support from as many foreign sources as possible.

The Russian revolution and civil war afforded Chinese warlords an opportunity to re-establish their rule in Outer Mongolia, and Chinese troops were dispatched there in 1919. Following Soviet military victories over White Russian forces in the early 1920s and the occupation of the Mongolian capital Urga in July 1921, Moscow again became the major outside influence on Mongolia. The Mongolian People's Republic was proclaimed on November 25, 1924.

Between 1925 and 1928, power under the communist regime was consolidated by the Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Party (MPRP). The MPRP left gradually undermined rightist elements, seizing control of the party and the government. Several factors characterized the country during this period: The society was basically nomadic and illiterate; there was no industrial proletariat; the aristocracy and the religious establishment shared the country's wealth; there was widespread popular obedience to traditional authorities; the party lacked grassroots support; and the government had little organization or experience.

In an effort at swift socioeconomic reform, the leftist government applied extreme measures that attacked the two most dominant institutions in the country—the aristocracy and the religious establishment. Between 1932 and 1945, their excess zeal, intolerance, and inexperience led to anti-communist uprisings. In the late 1930s, purges directed at the religious institution resulted in the desecration of hundreds of Buddhist institutions and imprisonment of more than 10,000 people.

During World War II, because of a growing Japanese threat over the Mongolian-Manchurian border, the Soviet Union reversed the course of Mongolian socialism in favor of a new policy of economic gradualism and buildup of the national defense. The

Soviet-Mongolian army defeated Japanese forces that had invaded eastern Mongolia in the summer of 1939, and a truce was signed setting up a commission to define the Mongolian-Manchurian border in the autumn of that year.

Following the war, the Soviet Union reasserted its influence in Mongolia. Secure in its relations with Moscow, the Mongolian Government shifted to postwar development, focusing on civilian enterprise. International ties were expanded, and Mongolia established relations with North Korea and the new communist governments in Eastern Europe. It also increased its participation in communist-sponsored conferences and international organizations. Mongolia became a member of the United Nations in 1961. In the early 1960s, Mongolia attempted to maintain a neutral position amidst increasingly contentious Sino-Soviet polemics; this orientation changed in the middle of the decade. Mongolia and the Soviet Union signed an agreement in 1966 that introduced large-scale Soviet ground forces as part of Moscow's general buildup along the Sino-Soviet frontier.

During the period of Sino-Soviet tensions, relations between Mongolia and China deteriorated. In 1983, Mongolia systematically began expelling some of the 7,000 ethnic Chinese in Mongolia to China. Many of them had lived in Mongolia since the 1950s, when they were sent there to assist in construction projects.

Chronology of Mongolian History—921-Present

March 13, 1921: Provisional People's Government declares independence of Mongolia.

May 31, 1924: U.S.S.R. signs agreement with Peking government, referring to Outer Mongolia as an “integral part of the Republic of China,” whose “sovereignty” therein the Soviet Union promises to respect.

May-September 16, 1939: Large scale fighting takes place between Japanese and Soviet-Mongolian forces along Khalkhyn Gol on Mongolia-Manchuria border, ending in defeat of the Japanese expeditionary force. Truce negotiated between U.S.S.R. and Japan.

October 6, 1949: Newly established People's Republic of China accepts recognition accorded Mongolia and agrees to establish diplomatic relations.

October 1961: Mongolia becomes a member of the United Nations.

January 27, 1987: Diplomatic relations established with the United States.

December 1989: First popular reform demonstrations. Mongolian Democratic Association organized.

January 1990: Large-scale demonstrations demanding democracy held in sub-zero weather.

March 2, 1990: Soviets and Mongolians announce that all Soviet troops will be withdrawn from Mongolia by 1992.

May 1990: Constitution amended to provide for multi-party system and new elections.

July 29, 1990: First democratic elections held.

September 3, 1990: First democratically elected People's Great Hural takes office.

February 12, 1992: New constitution goes into effect.

April 8, 1992: New election law passed.

June 28, 1992: Election for the first unicameral legislature (State Great Hural).

June 6, 1993: First direct presidential election.

June 30, 1996: Election resulted in peaceful transition of power from former communist party to coalition of democratic parties. From 1998-2000, four prime ministers and a series of cabinet changes. In early 2000, Democratic Coalition dissolved.

July 2, 2000: Election resulted in victory for the former communist Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Part (MPRP); first-past-the-post electoral system enabled MPRP, with 52% of the popular vote, to win 95% of the parliamentary seats; formation of new government by Prime Minister N. Enkhbayar.

June 27, 2004: Motherland-Democracy Coalition formed in early 2004 to contest the parliamentary election. Election resulted in roughly 50/50 split of parliamentary seats between former communist party and democratic opposition and formation of new government by Prime Minister T. Elbegdorj (Democratic Party).

January 2006: MPRP ministers resigned from the government, and the government dissolved. A new coalition government was formed, led by the MPRP with the participation of four smaller parties.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Until 1990, the Mongolian Government was modeled on the Soviet system; only the communist party—the MPRP—officially was permitted to function. After some instability during the first two decades of communist rule in Mongolia, there was no significant popular unrest until December 1989. Collectivization of animal husbandry, introduction of agriculture, and the extension of fixed abodes were all carried out without perceptible popular opposition.

The birth of perestroika in the former Soviet Union and the democracy movement in Eastern Europe were mirrored in Mongolia. The dramatic shift toward reform started in early 1990 when the first organized opposition group, the Mongolian Democratic Union, appeared. In the face of extended street protests in subzero weather and popular demands for faster reform, the politburo of the MPRP resigned in March 1990. In May, the constitution was amended, deleting reference to the MPRP's role as the guiding force in the country, legalizing opposition parties, creating a standing legislative body, and establishing the office of president.

Mongolia's first multi-party elections for a People's Great Hural were held on July 29, 1990. The MPRP won 85% of the seats. The People's Great Hural first met on September 3 and elected a president (MPRP), vice president (SDP—Social Democrats), prime minister (MPRP), and 50 members to the Baga Hural (small Hural). The vice president also was chairman of the Baga Hural. In November 1991, the People's Great Hural began discussion on a new constitution, which entered into force February 12. In addition to establishing Mongolia as an independent, sovereign republic and guaranteeing a number of rights and freedoms, the new constitution restructured the legislative branch of government, creating a unicameral legislature, the State Great Hural (SGH).

The 1992 constitution provided that the president would be elected by popular vote rather than by the legislature as before. In June 1993, incumbent Punsalmaagiyn Ochirbat won the first popular presidential election running as the candidate of the democratic opposition.

As the supreme government organ, the SGH is empowered to enact and amend laws, determine domestic and foreign policy, ratify international agreements, and declare a state of emergency. The SGH meets semiannually for 3–4 month sessions. SGH members elect a chairman and vice chairman who serve 4-year terms. SGH members are popularly elected by district for 4-year terms.

The president is the head of state, commander in chief of the armed forces, and head of the National Security Council. He is popularly elected by a national majority for a 4-year term and limited to two terms. The constitution empowers the president to propose a prime minister, call for the government's dissolution in consultation with the SGH chairman, initiate legislation, veto all or parts of legislation (the SGH can override the veto with a two-thirds majority), and issue decrees, which become effective with the prime minister's signature. In the absence, incapacity, or resignation of the president, the SGH chairman exercises presidential power until inauguration of a newly elected president.

The government, headed by the prime minister, has a 4-year term. The prime minister is nominated by the president and confirmed by the SGH. Under constitutional changes made in 2001, the president is required to nominate the prime ministerial candidate proposed by a party or coalition with a majority of members of the SGH. The prime minister chooses a cabinet, subject to SGH approval. Dissolution of the government occurs upon the prime minister's resignation, simultaneous resignation of half the cabinet, or after an SGH vote for dissolution.

Local hurals are elected by the 21 aimags (provinces) plus the capital, Ulaanbaatar. On the next lower administrative level, they are elected by provincial subdivisions and urban subdistricts in Ulaanbaatar and all aimags.

Political Parties

  • Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party
  • Democratic Party
  • Motherland—Mongolian Democratic New Socialist Party
  • National New Party
  • Civil Will Party
  • Mongolian People's Party
  • Mongolian Green Party
  • Mongolian Traditional United Party
  • Mongolian National Solidarity Party
  • Mongolian Libera 1 Democratic Party
  • Mongolian Republican Party
  • Mongolian Women's Nationa 1 United Party
  • Mongolian Liberal Party
  • Mongolian Social Democratic Party
  • Freedom Implementing Party

Legal System

The 1992 constitution empowered a General Council of Courts (GCC) to select all judges and protect their rights. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial body. Justices are nominated by the GCC and confirmed by the SGH and president. The court is constitutionally empowered to examine all lower court decisions—excluding specialized court rulings—upon appeal and provide official interpretations on all laws except the constitution.

Specialized civil, criminal, and administrative courts exist at all levels and are not subject to Supreme Court supervision. Local authorities—district and city governors—ensure that these courts abide by presidential decrees and SGH decisions. At the apex of the judicial system is the Constitutional Court, which consists of nine members, including a chairman, appointed for 6-year terms, whose jurisdiction extends solely over the interpretation of the constitution.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 2/1/2008

Pres.: Nambaryn ENKHBAYAR

Speaker, State Great Hural: Danzan LUNDEEJANTSAN

Prime Min.: Sanjaa BAYAR

Dep. Prime Min.: Miyegombo ENKHBOLD

Chief, Cabinet Secretariat: Nymaa ENKHBOLD

Sec., National Security Council: Dugerjav GOTOV

Min. of Construction & Urban Development: Tserendash TSOLMON

Min. of Defense: Jamyandorj BATKHUYAG

Min. of Education, Culture, & Science: Nordov BOLORMAA

Min. of Environment: Gankhuyag SHIILEGDAMBA

Min. of Finance: Chultem ULAAN

Min. of Food & Agriculture: Tserendorj GANKHUYAG

Min. of Foreign Affairs: Sanjaasuren OYUN

Min. of Fuel & Energy: Chimed KHURELBAATAR

Min. of Health: Byambaa BASEREEDENE

Min. of Industry & Trade: Khalzkhuu NARANKHUU

Min. of Justice & Home Affairs: Tsend MUNHK-ORGIL

Min. of Roads, Transportation, & Tourism: Radnaabazar RASH

Min. of Social Welfare & Labor: Damdin DEMBEREL

Chief, Gen. Staff, Mongolian Armed Forces: Tseveguren TOGOO, Lt. Gen.

Governor, Bank of Mongolia: Alag BATSUKH

Ambassador to the US: Radvan BOLD

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Baatar CHOISUREN

Mongolia maintains an embassy in the United States at 2833 M Street, NW, Washington, DC, 20007; tel. (202) 333-7117, fax (202) 298-9227, website: www.mongolianembassy.us.

ECONOMY

Economic activity in Mongolia has traditionally been based on herding and agriculture. Mongolia has extensive mineral deposits; copper, coal, molybdenum, tin, tungsten, and gold account for a large part of industrial production. Soviet assistance, at its height one-third of GDP, disappeared almost overnight in 1990-91 at the time of the dismantlement of the U.S.S.R., leading to a very deep recession. Economic growth returned due to reform embracing free-market economics and extensive privatization of the formerly state-run economy. Severe winters and summer droughts in 2000-2001 and 2001-2002 resulted in massive livestock die-off and anemic GDP growth of 1.1% in 2000 and 1% in 2001. This was compounded by falling prices for Mongolia's primary-sector exports and widespread opposition to privatization. Growth improved to 4% in 2002, 5% in 2003, 10.6% in 2004, 6.2% in 2005 and 7.5% in 2006. Much of the growth was due to high copper prices and new gold production. Other than agriculture (20.2% of GDP), dominant industries in the composition of GDP are mining 20.4%, trade and service 24.8% and transportation, storage, and communication 12.2%. Mongolia's economy continues to be heavily influenced by its neighbors. For example, Mongolia purchases 80% of its petroleum products from Russia. China is Mongolia's chief export partner and a main source of the “shadow,” or “gray” economy. The gray economy is estimated to be at least one-third the size of the official economy. The actual size of this gray—largely cash—economy is difficult to calculate since the money does not pass through the hands of tax authorities or the banking sector. Remittances from Mongolians working abroad, both legally and illegally, constitute a sizeable portion. Money laundering is growing as an accompanying concern. Mongolia settled its large debt to Russia at the end of 2003 on favorable terms. Mongolia, which joined the World Trade Organization in 1997, is the only member of that organization to not be a participant in a regional trade organization. Mongolia seeks to expand its participation and integration into Asian regional economic and trade regimes.

Because of Mongolia's remoteness and natural beauty, the tourism sector has recently shown signs of rapid growth. With spiking international commodity prices, there has been a surge of international interest in investing in Mongolia's minerals sector despite the absence of a policy environment firmly conducive to private investment. How effectively Mongolia mobilizes private international investment around its comparative advantages (mineral wealth, small population, and proximity to China and its burgeoning markets) will ultimately determine its success in sustaining rapid economic growth. Parliament passed a windfall profits tax on copper and gold that took effect in mid-2006, and major amendments to the minerals law allowing the government to take an equity stake in major new mines. It is unknown what effect these laws will have on mining activities in Mongolia, although major potential investors expressed considerable concern about the changes.

Parliament in 2006 passed four new tax laws: personal and corporate income, value-added and excise, intended to reduce the overall tax burden on taxpayers and stimulate the economy. Most provisions of the new laws took effect January 1, 2007. No projections of the economic effects are currently available.

Environment

As a result of rapid urbanization and industrial growth policies under the communist regime, Mongolia's deteriorating environment has become a major concern. The burning of soft coal by individual home or “ger” (yurt in Russian) owners, power plants, and factories in Ulaanbaatar has resulted in severely polluted air. Deforestation, overgrazed pastures, and efforts to increase grain and hay production by plowing up more virgin land have increased soil erosion from wind and rain. With the rapid growth of newly privatized herds, overgrazing in selected areas also is a concern. Recent rapid and relatively unregulated growth in the mining sector for minerals (gold, coal, etc.) has become the focus of public debate. A great deal of public attention is being paid to non-transparency of the government process of awarding licenses, the equitable sharing of economic rents between foreign investors and the Government of Mongolia, and the potential impact on the environment. However, the real environmental concern is the sharp boom in the number of informal gold miners, who frequently illegally use mercury, which may lead to an epidemic of mercury poisoning.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

In the wake of the international socialist economic system's collapse and the disintegration of the former Soviet Union, Mongolians began to pursue an independent and nonaligned foreign policy. Mongolia is landlocked between Russia and China, and seeks cordial relations with both nations. At the same time, Mongolia has sought to advance its regional and global relations. Ties with Japan and South Korea are particularly strong. Japan is the largest bilateral aid donor to Mongolia, a position it has held since 1991. Mongolia has also made efforts to steadily boost ties with European countries.

As part of its aim to establish a more balanced nonaligned foreign policy, Mongolia has sought to take a more active role in the United Nations and other international organizations, and has pursued a more active role in Asian and northeast Asian affairs. Mongolia became a full participant in the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) in July 1998 and a full member of the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council in April 2000. Mongolia is currently seeking to join the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC). Mongolia is an observer in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, but has stated it does not intend to seek membership.

Mongolian relations with China began to improve in the mid-1980s when consular agreements were reached and cross-border trade contacts expanded. In May 1990, a Mongolian head of state visited China for the first time in 28 years. The cornerstone of the Mongolian-Chinese relationship is a 1994 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation, which codifies mutual respect for the independence and territorial integrity of both sides. China has objected strongly to the five visits since 1990 of the Dalai Lama; during the last, in 2002, China briefly disrupted railroad links for “technical” reasons. There are regular high-level visits and expanding trade ties. President Hu Jintao visited Mongolia in 2003. President Bagabandi visited China in 2004, and President Enkhbayar visited in 2005.

After the disintegration of the former Soviet Union, Mongolia developed relations with the new independent states. Links with Russia and other republics were essential to contribute to stabilization of the Mongolian economy. In 1991, Mongolia and Russia concluded both a Joint Declaration of Cooperation and a bilateral trade agreement. This was followed by a 1993 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation establishing a new basis of equality in the relationship. Mongolian President Bagabandi visited Moscow in 1999, and Russian President Vladimir Putin visited Mongolia in 2000 in order to sign the 25-point Ulaanbaatar Declaration, reaffirming Mongol-Russian friendship and cooperation on numerous economic and political issues. In December 2003, Mongolia finally settled the Soviet-era debt it owed to Russia with a negotiated payment of $250 million. In July 2006, Prime Minister Fradkov visited Mongolia with a large business delegation. The Mongolian and Russian Governments continue to jointly own the railroad and the large Erdenet copper mine. President Enkhbayar visited Moscow in December 20

U.S.-MONGOLIAN RELATIONS

The U.S. Government recognized Mongolia in January 1987 and established its first embassy in Ulaanbaatar in June 1988. It formally opened in September 1988. The first U.S. ambassador to Mongolia, Richard L. Williams, was not resident there. Joseph E. Lake, the first resident ambassador, arrived in July 1990. Secretary of State James A. Baker, III visited Mongolia in August 1990, and again in July 1991. Mongolia accredited its first ambassador to the United States in March 1989. Secretary of State Madeline Albright visited Mongolia in May 1998, and Prime Minister Enkhbayar visited Washington in November 2001. Deputy Secretary of State Richard L. Armitage visited Mongolia in January 2004, and President Bagabandi came to Washington for a meeting with President Bush in July 2004. President Bush, Mrs. Bush, and Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice visited Mongolia in November 2005. Defense Secretary Rumsfeld visited in October 2005 and Speaker of the House of Representatives Dennis Hastert visited Mongolia in August 2005. Agriculture Secretary Johanns led a presidential delegation in July 2006 in conjunction with Mongolia's celebration of its 800th anniversary.

The United States has sought to assist Mongolia's movement toward democracy and market-oriented reform and to expand relations with Mongolia primarily in the cultural and economic fields. In 1989 and 1990, a cultural accord, Peace Corps accord, consular convention, and Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) agreement were signed. A trade agreement was signed in January 1991 and a bilateral investment treaty in 1994. Mongolia was granted permanent normal trade relations (NTR) status and generalized system of preferences (GSP) eligibility in June 1999. In July 2004, the U.S. signed a Trade and Investment Framework Agreement with Mongolia to promote economic reform and more foreign investment.

The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) plays a lead role in providing bilateral American assistance to Mongolia. The program emphasizes two main themes: sustainable, private sector-led economic growth; and more effective and accountable governance. Total USAID assistance to Mongolia from 1991 through 2007 was about $170 million, all in grant form. About two-thirds of USAID Mongolia's current (2007) budget of $5.6 million a year promotes economic growth, and focuses on macroeconomic policy reform, energy sector commercialization, financial sector reform, strengthening the cashmere and tourism industries, and providing business development services to small and medium enterprises in both rural and urban areas. The other third focuses on judicial sector reform, electoral reform, parliamentary reform, and anti-corruption work.

In most years since 1993, the United States Department of Agriculture has provided food aid to Mongolia under the Food for Progress and 416(b) programs. The monetized proceeds of the food aid ($3.7 million in 2005) are currently used to support programs bolstering entrepreneurship, herder diversification, better veterinary services, and disaster relief. The United States has also supported defense reform and an increased capacity by Mongolia's armed forces to participate in international peacekeeping operations. Mongolia has contributed small numbers of troops to coalition operations in Iraq and Afghanistan since 2003, gaining experience which enabled it to deploy armed peace-keepers to both UN and NATO peace-keeping missions in 2005. With U.S. Department of Defense assistance and cooperation, Mongolia and the U.S. jointly hosted “Khan Quest 06,” the Asian region's premier peace-keeping exercise in 2006. “Khan Quest 07” will be hosted on 01-16 August 2007.

The Peace Corps currently has over 100 Volunteers in Mongolia. They are engaged primarily in English teaching and teacher training activities. At the request of the Government of Mongolia, the Peace Corps has developed programs in the areas of public health, small business development, and youth development. In 2005 and 2006 Mongolian Government officials, including President Enkhbayar and Prime Minister Elbegdorj, requested significant increases in the number of Volunteers serving in country. The Peace Corps has responded with a commitment to make modest annual increases until 2010. The program celebrated its 15th anniversary in 2006 with participation by President Enkhbayar.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

Last Updated: 2/19/2008

ULAANBAATAR (E) Micro District 11, Big Ring Road, C.P.O. 1021, Ulaanbaatar, APO/FPO AmEmbassy Ulaanbaatar PSC 461, Box 300, FPO AP 96521-0002, (976-11) 329-095, Fax (976-11) 320-776, INMARSAT Tel 383130947, Workweek: M-F/ 0830-1230, 1300-1700, Website: http://mongolia.usembassy.gov.

AMB OMS:Klopp, Deborah Ann
DHS/CIS:(Beijing)
DHS/ICE:(Beijing)
ECO:Paul Herman
FM:James Horner
MGT:Harold Zappia
AMB:Mark C. Minton
CON:Vacant
DCM:Brian Goldbeck
PAO:Alexei Kral
COM:Paul Herman
GSO:Dale Lawton
RSO:John Koretke
AFSA:Alexei Kral
AGR:(Beijing)
AID:Barry Primm
APHIS:(Beijing)
ATF:(Beijing)
ATO:(Beijing)
CLO:Janet Horner&Nicole Babb
DAO:Ltc. Matthew Schwab
DEA:(Beijing)
EPA:(Beijing)
EST:(Beijing)
FAA:(Beijing)
FAA/CASLO(Beijing)
FMO:Harold Zappia
ICASS:Chair Kenneth Goodson
IMO:Randy Grover
IRS:(Toyko)
ISSO:Yi Zhou
LAB:(Beijing)
LEGATT:(Beijing)
MLO:Ltc.Matthew Schwab
NAS:(Beijing)
POL:Greg Wiegand
RAMC:(Bangkok)

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

November 8, 2007

Country Description: Mongolia is the size of Alaska and is a vast country of mountains, lakes, deserts and grasslands. It peacefully abandoned its communist system in 1990 and is successfully making the transition to a parliamentary democracy. Economic reforms continue. The country's development will depend on considerable infrastructure investment, particularly in the mining, energy, transportation, and communication sectors. Travelers to Mongolia should be aware that shortcomings in these areas might have an impact on travel plans.

Entry Requirements: A valid passport is required for American visitors. No visa is required for Americans visiting for fewer than 90 days; however, visitors planning to stay in Mongolia for more than 30 days are required to register with the Immigration, Naturalization and Foreign Citizens Agency in Ulaanbaatar within the first seven days of arrival. American visitors who fail to register and who stay longer than 30 days, even for reasons beyond their control, will be stopped at departure, denied exit, and fined. It is recommended that if there is any possibility that a visitor will be in Mongolia beyond 30 days that they register with the Immigration, Naturalization and Foreign Citizens Agency within the first seven days of their arrival.

Americans planning to work or study in Mongolia should apply for a visa at a Mongolian Embassy or Consulate overseas. Failure to do so may result in authorities denying registration, levying a fine, and requiring that the visitor leave the country. Travelers arriving or departing Mongolia through China or Russia should be aware of Chinese and Russian visa regulations (transiting twice will require a double-or multiple-entry visa) and note that some land entry points have varying days and hours. American citizens are not permitted to transit through China or Russia without a visa. For more information on these requirements see the Country Specific Information for these countries at http://travel.state.gov. Travelers planning travel to Russia should get visas prior to arriving in Mongolia, as they are difficult to get at the Russian Embassy in Mongolia.

Individuals without Mongolian visas are subject to an exit tax payable either in USD or Mongolian Tugrugs upon departure. This amount may or may not be included with the price of the airline ticket; travelers are advised to confirm when they purchase their airline ticket.

In an effort to prevent international child abduction, many governments have initiated procedures at entry/ exit points. These often include requiring documentary evidence of relationship and permission for the child's travel from the parent(s) or legal guardian if not present. Having such documentation on hand, even if not required, may facilitate entry/ departure.

Visit the Embassy of Mongolia web site at http://www.mongolianem-bassy.us for the most current visa information. Travelers can also contact the Embassy of Mongolia at 2833 M Street NW, Washington, DC 20007, telephone (202) 333-7117 for the most current visa information.

Safety and Security: There have been no significant acts of terrorism, kidnapping, criminal incidents, or extremist activity directed against U.S. interests in Mongolia. There are no regions of instability in the country. U.S. citizens are advised to avoid protests and street demonstrations that occur occasionally in Ulaanbaatar, as the demonstrations may become unruly.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Internet web site, where the current Worldwide Caution Travel Alert, Travel Warnings and Travel Alerts can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S. and Canada, or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444.

Crime: Over the past few years there has been a significant rise in street crime in Mongolia, particularly in Ulaanbaatar, the capital. Violent crime is increasing, and it is not advisable to walk alone through the city after dark. The most common crimes against foreigners are pick pocketing and bag snatching. There are reports of organized groups operating in open areas and usually after dark who surround, grab, and choke an individual in order to search the victim's pockets. Thieves have also sliced victims’ clothing in attempts to reach wallets, cell phones and other valuables. U.S. citizens who detect pick pocket attempts should not confront the thieves, as they may become violent. Caution is advised when using public transportation and in crowded public areas, such as open-air markets, the Central Post Office and the Gandan Monastery. Crime sharply rises before, during and after the Naadam Summer Festival in July and throughout the summer tourist season.

Travelers should be extremely cautious at these specific locations:

  • Chinggis Khan International Airport in Ulaanbaatar: tourists arriving and departing from this airport are frequently targeted for robbery and pick pocketing by organized groups.
  • The State Department Store: tourists are targeted by organized pick pocket gangs at the entries/ exits/elevators and the area surrounding the store.
  • Naran Tuul Covered Market: Organized criminal groups look for and target foreigners for robbery and pick pocketing.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Medical facilities in Mongolia are very limited and do not meet most western standards, especially for emergency health care requirements. Many brand-name western medicines are unavailable. Ulaanbaatar, the capital, has the majority of medical facilities; outside of Ulaanbaatar medical facilities and treatment are extremely limited or non-existent. Specialized emergency care for infants and the elderly is not available. Infectious diseases, such as plague, meningococcal meningitis, and tuberculosis, are present at various times of the year. Serious medical problems requiring hospitalization and/or medical evacuation to the United States can cost tens of thousands of dollars; see section on Medical Insurance below. Doctors and hospitals usually expect immediate payment in cash for health services. A June 2005 medical evacuation from Ulaanbaatar just to Seoul, Korea cost the patient $87,000. Med evac companies will not initiate an evacuation without a fee guarantee beforehand and in full. Please see medical information for Americans traveling abroad.

Local hospitals generally do not contact the Embassy about ill or injured Americans in their care; hospitalized American citizens who need Consular assistance from the Embassy will need to specifically request the doctor or hospital to contact the Embassy in Ulaanbaatar. For more information, please contact the U.S. Embassy in Ulaanbaatar, which has a list of medical facilities available to foreigners (also available on the U.S. Embassy web site at http://ulaanbaatar.usembassy.gov or the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's international traveler's hotline. Sanitation in some restaurants is inadequate, particularly outside of Ulaanbaatar. Stomach illnesses are frequent. Bottled water and other routine precautions are advisable.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC's internet site at http://wwwn.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's (WHO) web site at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Mongolia is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Driving in Ulaanbaatar can be extremely difficult due to poorly maintained streets, malfunctioning traffic lights, inadequate street lighting, undisciplined pedestrians, and a shortage of traffic signs. There has been a dramatic increase in the number of vehicles on the roads in recent years, but the knowledge and skills of the driving population have not kept pace with the growth of automobiles. There are many metered taxis in Ulaanbaatar. There are a few car rental companies operating in Ulaanbaatar, but safety and maintenance standards are uncertain and rental vehicles should be utilized with caution. Another alternative is to hire a car and driver from local tourist companies. Public transportation within the capital is extensive, cheap, and generally reliable, but it is also extremely crowded with the result that pickpockets often victimize foreigners. There are few paved roads outside of the capital, and driving can be hazardous, particularly after dark. For specific information concerning Mongolian drivers permits, vehicle inspection, road tax, and mandatory insurance, contact the Embassy of Mongolia at: 2833 M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007, telephone (202) 333-7117.

Visit the web site of the country's national tourist office and national authority responsible for road safety at http://www.mongolianembassy.us/default.php.

Aviation Safety Oversight: As there is no direct commercial air service between the United States and Mongolia, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Mongolia's Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA's Internet web site at: http://www.faa.gov.

The U.S. Embassy prohibits U.S. government personnel from using the domestic services of Mongolian International Air Transport (MIAT) for official travel because of uncertainties regarding service and maintenance schedules, aircraft certification and insurance status. This prohibition does not extend to MIAT's international flights.

Special Circumstances: Traveler's checks denominated in U.S. dollars are accepted at some hotels and may be converted to dollars or Tugrugs at several banks. Credit cards can be used at a variety of hotels, restaurants, and shops in Ulaanbaatar. Outside of the capital, travelers should have cash. Cash advances against credit cards are available at some commercial banks such as Trade and Development Bank, Golomt Bank, Khan Bank, and Xac Bank. International bank wire transfers are also possible. There are a handful of VISA and Maestro/Cirrus ATM machines in Ulaanbaatar, but they do not always function and are not reliable. ATM machines do not exist outside the capital.

American citizens are encouraged to carry a copy of their passports with them at all times, so that, if questioned by local officials, proof of identity and citizenship are readily available. U.S. consular officers may not always receive timely notification of the detention or arrest of a U.S. citizen, particularly outside of Ulaanbaatar.

Severe fuel shortages and problems with central heating and electrical systems may cause seriously reduced heating levels and power outages in Ulaanbaatar and other cities during the winter. Smaller towns in the countryside may have no heat or electricity at all. The Embassy advises all American residents in Mongolia to be prepared to depart if there is a complete energy failure. General information about natural disaster preparedness is available via the Internet from the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) at http://www.fema.gov.

Mongolian customs authorities enforce strict regulations concerning import and export of items such as firearms, ammunition, and antiquities. Import of firearms or ammunition requires prior approval from the Government of Mongolia. Export of antiquities requires a special customs clearance certificate issued by authorized antique shops at the time of purchase. For additional information contact the Embassy of Mongolia at: 2833 M Street NW, Washington, DC 20402, telephone: (202) 333-7117.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Police officials will often require a visitor to remain in Mongolia for an indefinite period of time pending resolution of a filed complaint. Persons violating Mongolian laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Mongolia are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children's Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Registration and Embassy Locations: Americans living or traveling in Mongolia are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department's travel registration website so that they can obtain updated information on travel and security within Mongolia. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency. The U.S. Embassy is located at: at Micro Region 11, Big Ring Road, Ulaanbaatar. The telephone number is (976) 11-329-095, the Consular Section fax number is (976) 11-353-788, and the Embassy's web site is http://ulaanbaatar.usembassy.gov. The Consular Section can be emailed directly at [email protected]. The Consular Section is open for American Citizens Services Monday and Thursday from 1-3 p.m., except on U.S. and Mongolian holidays.

International Adoption

March 2007

The information in this section has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Disclaimer: The information in this flyer relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is based on public sources and current understanding. Questions involving foreign and U.S. immigration laws and legal interpretation should be addressed respectively to qualified foreign or U.S. legal counsel.

Please Note: The U.S. Embassy in Ulaanbaatar does not process immigrant visas at this time. After the adoption is completed, adoptive parents must take their child to the U.S. Embassy in Seoul, South Korea for immigrant visa processing and the orphan visa interview.

Patterns of Immigration: Please review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Adoption Authority: The government offices responsible for adoptions in Mongolia are the Ministry of Social Welfare and Labor of Mongolia (MSWL) and the Office of Immigration, Naturalization and Foreign Citizens.

Ministry of Social Welfare and Labor of Mongolia (MSWL)
Mailing Address:
United Nations Street 5
UB-46
Government Building No 2
Ministry of Social Welfare and Labor
Tel: 976-11-267635
Fax: 976-11-327635
Fax: 976-11-328634
Website: http://www.mswl.pmis.gov.mn
E-mail:
[email protected]

Office of Immigration,
Naturalization and Foreign Citizens,
Ministry of Justice and Home Affairs
Mailing Address:
Chinggis Avenue 11
Sukhbaatar District, Ulaanbaatar
210628
Ms. Purevee Bolormaa
Tel: 976-11-319588
Tel: 976-11-315323
Fax: 976-11-313259
Website:
http://www.mngimmigration.mn
E-mail: [email protected]

The Mongolian and U.S. authorities involved in the adoption and immigration process review each case individually to ensure that the child and the prospective adoptive family have met both countries’ legal requirements.

Eligibility Requirements for Adoptive Parents: The Mongolian embassy in Washington, D.C., has a web page devoted to the eligibility requirements for adopting Mongolian children. American citizens considering adopting from Mongolia should visit the Mongolian embassy's adoption page online at http://www.mongolianembassy.us.

Residency Requirements: There are no residency requirements for prospective adoptive parents who apply through agencies authorized by the Mongolian Government. However, Mongolian Family Law does require persons adopting privately (i.e., not through an agency) to reside in Mongolia for at least six months.

Time Frame: It is hard to predict with certainty how much time is required to complete an adoption in Mongolia. The time frames provided in this flyer are intended as guidelines only, and the specific circumstances of each case can significantly impact the length of the process.

As of March 2007, adoption procedure takes approximately twelve to eighteen months from the time the U.S. adoption agency or private U.S. citizens submitted the paperwork to MSWL to the time the MSWL gives it for final approval to the Office of Immigration, Naturalization and Foreign Citizens.

Adoption Agencies and Attorneys: Although the Government of Mongolia currently permits private adoptions, there has been some discussion of prohibiting these in the near future. Adoptive parents using an agency must use one of the Mongolian Government-approved adoption agencies. The U.S. Department of State does not assume any responsibility for the quality of services provided by these private adoption agencies or their employees.

Adoption Fees: There are no Mongolian government fees for adoption. Prospective adoptive parents can expect to pay notary fees and/or fees for translation of documents.

Private adoptions: Foreign citizens who have resided in Mongolia for more than six months shall apply directly to the Ministry of Social Welfare and Labor (MSWL) about his/her request to adopt a Mongolian child. The MSWL is the Central Authority in Mongolia. The Department of Population Development, Social Welfare Policy and Coordination within the MSWL accepts all necessary documentation for adoption including residency permit and/or work permit. This process generally takes between three and six months, although it has sometimes taken longer depending on the MSWL's workload. While Mongolian law does not currently require a home study, in practice the MSWL has recently been requiring home studies. The U.S. Embassy in Mongolia believes that the home study requirement will be formalized in the future.

The MSWL checks all documents and proposes a child for adoption. Once the prospective parents agree to the adoption, the case goes to the Office of Immigration, Naturalization and Foreign Citizens for final decision, which takes approximately one month.

Licensed Adoption Agency: The first step for a family residing in the United States is to apply to one of the Mongolian Government-approved U.S. adoption agencies (listed above) for a home study. Adoption agencies gather documents from prospective parents and present them to the MSWL. Based on the home study, the MSWL will propose a child with whom to match the prospective parents. The adoption agency then presents the documentation to the Office of Immigration, Naturalization and Foreign Citizens for final approval. This process normally takes approximately one month.

Both Processes: Parents who have adopted a child (either independently or through an adoption agency) must register their adoption to the State and Civil Registration and Information Center (SCRIC), which then issues a birth certificate and adoption decree. The parent must be present at the registration.

Required Documents: For a list of document required by the government of Mongolia please see Article 58.3 of Mongolian family law available at www.mongolianembassy.us.

Embassy of Mongolia, Washington, D.C .
2833 M Street, N.W.
Washington D.C. 20007
Web:http://www.mongolianembassy.us/ E-mail: [email protected]

Permanent Mission of Mongolia to the United Nations in New York
6 East 77th Street,
New York, N.Y. 10021
Web: http://www.un.int./mongolia
E-mail:[email protected]

U.S. Immigration Requirements: Prospective adoptive parents are strongly encouraged to consult USCIS publication M-249, The Immigration of Adopted and Prospective Adoptive Children, as well as the Department of State publication, International Adoptions. Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Embassy of the United States of America, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
11 Micro District
Big Ring Road, POB 1021
Ulaanbaatar-13, Mongolia
http://www.ulaanbaatar.usembassy.gov
E-mail: [email protected]

Additional Information: Specific questions about adoption in Mongolia may be addressed to the U.S. Embassy in Ulaanbaatar. Questions about the immigrant visa process for Mongolian children should be directed to the U.S. Embassy in Seoul.

General questions regarding inter-country adoption may be addressed to the Office of Children's Issues, U.S. Department of State, CA/OCS/CI, SA-29, 4th Floor, 2201 C Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20520-4818, Toll-free Tel: 1-888-407-4747.

Mongolia

views updated May 21 2018

Mongolia

Compiled from the January 2007 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Mongolia

PROFILE

PEOPLE

HISTORY

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

ECONOMY

FOREIGN RELATIONS

U.S.-MONGOLIAN RELATIONS

TRAVEL

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 1,566,500 sq. km. (604,103 sq. mi.); slightly larger than Alaska (land boundaries 8,114 km.).

Terrain: Almost 90% of land area is pasture or desert, of varying usefulness; 1% arable; 9% forested.

Climate: Continental, with little precipitation and sharp seasonal fluctuations.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Mongolian(s).

Population: (2006 est.) 2.56 million.

Annual growth rate: (2005) 1.16%.

Health: (2005) Infant mortality rate—21.54/1,000. Life expectancy—65.21 yrs.

Ethnic groups: (2004) 85% Mongol (predominantly Khalkha), 7% Turkic (largest group, Kazakh) 4.6% Tungusic, and 3.4% others, including Chinese and Russian.

Languages: Mongolian, Kazakh, Russian, and English.

Religions: Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism 94%, Muslim 6% (primarily in the southwest), and Shamanism.

Education: Years compulsory—8 (provided free by the government). Literacy—more than 90%.

Government

Type: Multiparty parliamentary form of government.

Independence: gained in 1921; in 1990, democratic reform begun and shift from dependence on the former Soviet Union declared.

Constitutions: 1960 and February 12, 1992.

Government branches: Executive—power is divided between a president (elected by a popular election in May 2005) and prime minister (current cabinet nominated by the prime minister was approved in January 2006 by the State Great Hural, which was elected in June 2004). Legislative—State Great Hural (76 deputies). Judicial—Constitutional Court is empowered to supervise the implementation of the constitution, makes judgment on the violation of its provisions, and solves disputes. Legal code based on Continental and Russian law. Legal education at Mongolian State Univ. and private universities. Mongolia accepts ICJ jurisdiction.

Political parties: 25 announced Political parties: (21 listed under “Government” section).

Suffrage: Universal at 18.

Political subdivisions: 18 aimags (provinces) and 3 autonomous cities (Ulaanbaatar, Darkhan, and Erdenet).

Economy

GDP in PPP: (2005 est.) $5.27 billion.

GDP growth rate: (2005 est.) 6.2%.

Per capita GDP in PPP: (2005 est.) $2,059.

Natural resources: Coal, copper, molybdenum, iron, phosphates, tin, nickel, zinc, wolfram, fluorspar, gold, uranium, and petroleum.

Agriculture: (21.7% of 2005 GDP, livelihood for about 40% of population) Products—livestock and byproducts, hay fodder, vegetables.

Industry: (27.9% of 2005 GDP, includes mining 20.4%, manufacturing 4.4%, and utilities (electricity, gas, and water) 3.1%) Types—Minerals (primarily copper and gold), animal-derived products, building materials, food/beverage.

Trade: (2005) Total turnover of foreign trade for 2005 was $2,249.2 million. Exports—$1,064.9 million: minerals, livestock, animal products, and textiles. Markets—Asian countries (56.7%), European countries (16.1%), and countries of American continent (25.9%). Imports—$1,184.3 million: machinery and equipment, fuels, food products, industrial consumer goods, chemicals, building equipment, vehicles, textiles. Suppliers—91 countries account for 93.2% of total imports, of which European countries (48.7%) and Asian countries (44.5%).

Aid received: From 1990–2004, official development assistance to Mongolia from bilateral and multilateral donors was $2.7 billion.

Fiscal year: Calendar year.

PEOPLE

Life in sparsely populated Mongolia has recently become more urbanized. Nearly half of the people live in the capital, Ulaanbaatar, and in other provincial centers. Semi-nomadic life still predominates in the countryside, but settled agricultural communities are becoming more common. Mongolia’s birth rate is estimated at 21.59 births/1000 people (2006). About two-thirds of the total population is under age 30, 27.9% of whom are under 14.

Ethnic Mongols account for about 85% of Mongolia’s population and consist of Khalkha and other groups, all distinguished primarily by dialects of the Mongol language. Mongol is an Altaic language—from the Altaic Mountains of Central Asia, a language family comprising the Turkic, Tungusic, and Mongolic subfamilies—and is related to Turkic (Uzbek, Turkish, and Kazakh), Korean, and, possibly, Japanese. Among ethnic Mongols, the Khalkha comprise 90% and the remaining 10% include Durbet Mongols in the north and Dariganga Mongols in the east. Turkic speakers (Kazakhs, Turvins, and Khotans) constitute 7% of Mongolia’s population, and the rest are Tungusic-speakers, Chinese, and Russians. Most Russians left the country following the withdrawal of economic aid and collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. Traditionally, Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism was the predominant religion. However, it was suppressed under the communist regime until 1990, with only one showcase monastery allowed to remain. Since 1990, as liberalization began, Buddhism has enjoyed a resurgence. About 4 million ethnic Mongols live outside Mongolia; about 3.4 million live in China, mainly in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, and some 500,000 live in Russia, primarily in Buryatia and Kalmykia.

HISTORY

In 1206 AD, a single Mongolian state was formed based on nomadic tribal groupings under the leadership of Chinggis (“Genghis”) Khan. He and his immediate successors conquered nearly all of Asia and European Russia and sent armies as far as central Europe and Southeast Asia. Chinggis Khan’s grandson Kublai Khan, who conquered China and established the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368 AD), gained fame in Europe through the writings of Marco Polo.

Although Mongol-led confederations sometimes exercised wide political power over their conquered territories, their strength declined rapidly after the Mongol dynasty in China was overthrown in 1368. The Manchus, a tribal group which conquered China in 1644 and formed the Qing dynasty, were able to bring Mongolia under Manchu control in 1691 as Outer Mongolia when the Khalkha Mongol nobles swore an oath of allegiance to the Manchu emperor. The Mongol rulers of Outer Mongolia enjoyed considerable autonomy under the Manchus, and all Chinese claims to Outer Mongolia following the establishment of the republic have rested on this oath. In 1727, Russia and Manchu China concluded the Treaty of Khiakta, delimiting the border between China and Mongolia that exists in large part today.

Outer Mongolia was a Chinese province (1691-1911), an autonomous state under Russian protection (1912-19), and again a Chinese province (1919-21). As Manchu authority in China waned, and as Russia and Japan confronted each other, Russia gave arms and diplomatic support to nationalists among the Mongol religious leaders and nobles. The Mongols accepted Russian aid and proclaimed their independence of Chinese rule in 1911, shortly after a successful Chinese revolt against the Manchus. By agreements signed in 1913 and 1915, the Russian Government forced the new Chinese Republican Government to accept Mongolian autonomy under continued Chinese control, presumably to discourage other foreign powers from approaching a newly independent Mongolian state that might seek support from as many foreign sources as possible.

The Russian revolution and civil war afforded Chinese warlords an opportunity to re-establish their rule in Outer Mongolia, and Chinese troops were dispatched there in 1919. Following Soviet military victories over White Russian forces in the early 1920s and the occupation of the Mongolian capital Urga in July 1921, Moscow again became the major outside influence on Mongolia. The Mongolian People’s Republic was proclaimed on November 25, 1924.

Between 1925 and 1928, power under the communist regime was consolidated by the Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Party (MPRP). The MPRP left gradually undermined rightist elements, seizing control of the party and the government. Several factors characterized the country during this period: The society was basically nomadic and illiterate; there was no industrial proletariat; the aristocracy and the religious establishment shared the country’s wealth; there was widespread popular obedience to traditional authorities; the party lacked grassroots support; and the government had little organization or experience.

In an effort at swift socioeconomic reform, the leftist government applied extreme measures that attacked the two most dominant institutions in the country—the aristocracy and the religious establishment. Between 1932 and 1945, their excess zeal, intolerance, and inexperience led to anti-communist uprisings. In the late 1930s, purges directed at the religious institution resulted in the desecration of hundreds of Buddhist institutions and imprisonment of more than 10,000 people.

During World War II, because of a growing Japanese threat over the Mongolian-Manchurian border, the Soviet Union reversed the course of Mongolian socialism in favor of a new policy of economic gradualism and buildup of the national defense. The

Soviet-Mongolian army defeated Japanese forces that had invaded eastern Mongolia in the summer of 1939, and a truce was signed setting up a commission to define the Mongolian-Manchurian border in the autumn of that year.

Following the war, the Soviet Union reasserted its influence in Mongolia. Secure in its relations with Moscow, the Mongolian Government shifted to postwar development, focusing on civilian enterprise. International ties were expanded, and Mongolia established relations with North Korea and the new communist governments in Eastern Europe. It also increased its participation in communist-sponsored conferences and international organizations. Mongolia became a member of the United Nations in 1961. In the early 1960s, Mongolia attempted to maintain a neutral position amidst increasingly contentious Sino-Soviet polemics; this orientation changed in the middle of the decade. Mongolia and the Soviet Union signed an agreement in 1966 that introduced large-scale Soviet ground forces as part of Moscow’s general buildup along the Sino-Soviet frontier. During the period of Sino-Soviet tensions, relations between Mongolia and China deteriorated.

In 1983, Mongolia systematically began expelling some of the 7,000 ethnic Chinese in Mongolia to China. Many of them had lived in Mongolia since the 1950s, when they were sent there to assist in construction projects.

Chronology of Mongolian History 1921-Present

March 13, 1921: Provisional People’s Government declares independence of Mongolia.

May 31, 1924: U.S.S.R. signs agreement with Peking government, referring to Outer Mongolia as an “integral part of the Republic of China,” whose “sovereignty” therein the Soviet Union promises to respect.

May-September 16, 1939: Large scale fighting takes place between Japanese and Soviet-Mongolian forces along Khalkhyn Gol on Mongolia-Manchuria border, ending in defeat of the Japanese expeditionary force. Truce negotiated between U.S.S.R. and Japan.

October 6, 1949: Newly established People’s Republic of China accepts recognition accorded Mongolia and agrees to establish diplomatic relations.

October 1961: Mongolia becomes a member of the United Nations.

January 27, 1987: Diplomatic relations established with the United States.

December 1989: First popular reform demonstrations. Mongolian Democratic Association organized.

January 1990: Large-scale demonstrations demanding democracy held in sub-zero weather.

March 2, 1990: Soviets and Mongolians announce that all Soviet troops will be withdrawn from Mongolia by 1992.

May 1990: Constitution amended to provide for multi-party system and new elections.

July 29, 1990: First democratic elections held.

September 3, 1990: First democratically elected People’s Great Hural takes office.

February 12, 1992: New constitution goes into effect.

April 8, 1992: New election law passed.

June 28, 1992: Election for the first unicameral legislature (State Great Hural).

June 6, 1993: First direct presidential election.

June 30, 1996: Election resulted in peaceful transition of power from former communist party to coalition of democratic parties. From 1998-2000, four prime ministers and a series of cabinet changes. In early 2000, Democratic Coalition dissolved.

July 2, 2000: Election resulted in victory for the former communist Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Party (MPRP); first-past-the-post electoral system enabled MPRP, with 52% of the popular vote, to win 95% of the parliamentary seats; formation of new government by Prime Minister N. Enkhbayar.

June 27, 2004: Motherland-Democracy Coalition formed in early 2004 to contest the parliamentary election. Election resulted in roughly 50/50 split of parliamentary seats between former communist party and democratic opposition and formation of new government by Prime Minister T. Elbegdorj (Democratic Party).

January 2006: MPRP ministers resigned from the government, and the government dissolved. A new coalition government was formed, led by the MPRP with the participation of four smaller parties.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Until 1990, the Mongolian Government was modeled on the Soviet system; only the communist party—the MPRP—officially was permitted to function. After some instability during the first two decades of communist rule in Mongolia, there was no significant popular unrest until December 1989. Collectivization of animal husbandry, introduction of agriculture, and the extension of fixed abodes were all carried out without perceptible popular opposition.

The birth of perestroika in the former Soviet Union and the democracy movement in Eastern Europe were mirrored in Mongolia. The dramatic shift toward reform started in early 1990 when the first organized opposition group, the Mongolian Democratic Union, appeared. In the face of extended street protests in subzero weather and popular demands for faster reform, the politburo of the MPRP resigned in March 1990. In May, the constitution was amended, deleting reference to the MPRP’s role as the guiding force in the country, legalizing opposition parties, creating a standing legislative body, and establishing the office of president.

Mongolia’s first multi-party elections for a People’s Great Hural were held on July 29, 1990. The MPRP won 85% of the seats. The People’s Great Hural first met on September 3 and elected a president (MPRP), vice president (SDP—Social Democrats), prime minister (MPRP), and 50 members to the Baga Hural (small Hural). The vice president also was chairman of the Baga Hural. In November 1991, the People’s Great Hural began discussion on a new constitution, which entered into force February 12. In addition to establishing Mongolia as an independent, sovereign republic and guaranteeing a number of rights and freedoms, the new constitution restructured the legislative branch of government, creating a unicameral legislature, the State Great Hural (SGH).

The 1992 constitution provided that the president would be elected by popular vote rather than by the legislature as before. In June 1993, incumbent Punsalmaagiyn Ochirbat won the first popular presidential election running as the candidate of the democratic opposition. As the supreme government organ, the SGH is empowered to enact and amend laws, determine domestic and foreign policy, ratify international agreements, and declare a state of emergency. The SGH meets semiannually for 3-4 month sessions. SGH members elect a chairman and vice chairman who serve 4-year terms. SGH members are popularly elected by district for 4-year terms. The president is the head of state, commander in chief of the armed forces, and head of the National Security Council. He is popularly elected by a national majority for a 4-year term and limited to two terms. The constitution empowers the president to propose a prime minister, call for the government’s dissolution in consultation with the SGH chairman, initiate legislation, veto all or parts of legislation (the SGH can override the veto with a two-thirds majority), and issue decrees, which become effective with the prime minister’s signature. In the absence, incapacity, or resignation of the president, the SGH chairman exercises presidential power until inauguration of a newly elected president. The government, headed by the prime minister, has a 4-year term. The prime minister is nominated by the president and confirmed by the SGH. Under constitutional changes made in 2001, the president is required to nominate the prime ministerial candidate proposed by a party or coalition with a majority of members of the SGH. The prime minister chooses a cabinet, subject to SGH approval. Dissolution of the government occurs upon the prime minister’s resignation, simultaneous resignation of half the cabinet, or after an SGH vote for dissolution. Local hurals are elected by the 18 aimags (provinces) plus the capital, Ulaanbaatar, and cities of Darhan and Erdenet. On the next lower administrative level, they are elected by provincial subdivisions and urban subdistricts in Ulaanbaatar and the municipalities, Darkhan and Erdenet.

Political Parties

  • Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party
  • Democratic Party
  • Motherland Party
  • National New Party
  • Mongolian Civil Will Party
  • Mongolian Republican Party
  • Mongolian People’s Party
  • Mongolian Green Party
  • Mongolian Workers’ Party
  • Mongolian Traditional United Party
  • Mongolian Solidarity Party
  • Mongolian Party for Tradition and Justice
  • Mongolian Democratic Socialist Party
  • Mongolian Youth Party
  • Mongolian Liberal Democratic Party
  • Mongolian Democratic New Socialist Party
  • Mongolian Communist Party
  • Mongolian Local Development Party
  • Mongolian Civil Democratic New Liberal Party
  • Mongolian New Social Democratic Party
  • Mongolian United Ethnographical Party

Legal System

The 1992 constitution empowered a General Council of Courts (GCC) to select all judges and protect their rights. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial body. Justices are nominated by the GCC and confirmed by the SGH and president. The court is constitutionally empowered to examine all lower court decisions—excluding specialized court rulings—upon appeal and provide official interpretations on all laws except the constitution. Specialized civil, criminal, and administrative courts exist at all levels and are not subject to Supreme Court supervision. Local authorities—district and city governors—ensure that these courts abide by presidential decrees and SGH decisions. At the apex of the judicial system is the Constitutional Court, which consists of nine members, including a chairman, appointed for 6-year terms, whose jurisdiction extends solely over the interpretation of the constitution.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 2/6/2006

President: Nambaryn ENKHBAYAR

Speaker, State Great Hural: Tsend NYAMDORJ

Prime Minister: Miegombyn ENKHBOLD

Dep. Prime Min.: Mendsaikhan ENKHSAIKHAN

Chief of Staff: Sanjaa BAYAR

Chief, Cabinet Secretariat: Sunduin BATBOLD

Sec., National Security Council: Dugerjav GOTOV

Min. of Construction & Urban Development: Janlav NARANTSATSRALT

Min. of Defense: Mishig SONOMPIL

Min. of Education, Culture, & Science: Ulzisaikhan ENKHTUVSHIN

Min. of Environment: Ichinkhorloo ERDENEBAATAR

Min. of Finance: Namid BAYARTSAIKHAN

Min. of Food & Agriculture: Dendev TERBISHDAGVA

Min. of Foreign Affairs: Nymaa ENKHBOLD

Min. of Fuel & Energy: Badarch ERDENEBAT

Min. of Health: Lamjav GUNDALAI

Min. of Industry & Trade: Bazarsad JARGALSAIKHAN

Min. of Justice & Home Affairs: Dorj ODBAYAR

Min. of Roads, Transportation & Tourism: Tsegmid TSENGEL

Min. of Social Welfare & Labor: Luvsan ODONCHIMED

Min. in Charge of Disaster Relief: Min. in Charge of Professional Inspections: Ukhna KHURELSUKH

Ambassador to the US: Ravdan BOLD Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Baatar CHOISUREN

Mongolia maintains an embassy in the United States at 2833 M Street, NW, Washington, DC, 20007; tel. (202) 333-7117, fax (202) 298-9227, website—www.mongolianembassy.us.

ECONOMY

Economic activity in Mongolia has traditionally been based on herding and agriculture. Mongolia has extensive mineral deposits; copper, coal, molybdenum, tin, tungsten, and gold account for a large part of industrial production. Soviet assistance, at its height one-third of GDP, disappeared almost overnight in 1990-91 at the time of the dismantlement of the U.S.S.R., leading to a very deep recession. Economic growth returned due to reform embracing free-market economics and extensive privatization of the formerly state-run economy. Severe winters and summer droughts in 2000-2001 and 2001-2002 resulted in massive livestock die-off and anemic GDP growth of 1.1% in 2000 and 1% in 2001. This was compounded by falling prices for Mongolia’s primary-sector exports and widespread opposition to privatization. Growth improved to 4% in 2002, 5% in 2003, 10.6% in 2004, and 6.2% in 2005. Much of the growth was due to high copper prices and new gold production. Other than agriculture (21.7% of GDP), dominant industries in the composition of GDP are mining 20.4%, trade and service 24.8% and transportation, storage, and communication 12.2%. Mongolia’s economy continues to be heavily influenced by its neighbors. For example, Mongolia purchases 80% of its petroleum products from Russia. China is Mongolia’s chief export partner and a main source of the “shadow,” or “gray” economy. The gray economy is estimated to be at least one-third the size of the official economy. The actual size of this gray—largely cash—economy is difficult to calculate since the money does not pass through the hands of tax authorities or the banking sector. Remittances from Mongolians working abroad, both legally and illegally, constitute a sizeable portion. Money laundering is growing as an accompanying concern. Mongolia settled its large debt to Russia at the end of 2003 on favorable terms. Mongolia, which joined the World Trade Organization in 1997, is the only member of that organization to not be a participant in a regional trade organization. Mongolia seeks to expand its participation and integration into Asian regional economic and trade regimes.

Because of Mongolia’s remoteness and natural beauty, the tourism sector has recently shown signs of rapid growth. With spiking international commodity prices, there has been a surge of international interest in investing in Mongolia’s minerals sector despite the absence of a policy environment firmly conducive to private investment. How effectively Mongolia mobilizes private international investment around its comparative advantages (mineral wealth, small population, and proximity to China and its burgeoning markets) will ultimately determine its success in sustaining rapid economic growth. Parliament passed a windfall profits tax on copper and gold that took effect in mid-2006, and major amendments to the minerals law allowing the government to take an equity stake in major new mines. It is unknown what effect these laws will have on mining activities in Mongolia, although major potential investors expressed considerable concern about the changes. Parliament in 2006 passed four new tax laws: personal and corporate income, value-added and excise, intended to reduce the overall tax burden on taxpayers and stimulate the economy. Most provisions of the new laws took effect January 1, 2007. No projections of the economic effects are currently available.

Environment

As a result of rapid urbanization and industrial growth policies under the communist regime, Mongolia’s deteriorating environment has become a major concern. The burning of soft coal by individual home or “ger” (yurt in Russian) owners, power plants, and factories in Ulaanbaatar has resulted in severely polluted air. Deforestation, overgrazed pastures, and efforts to increase grain and hay production by plowing up more virgin land have increased soil erosion from wind and rain. With the rapid growth of newly privatized herds, overgrazing in selected areas also is a concern. Recent rapid and relatively unregulated growth in the mining sector for minerals (gold, coal, etc.) has become the focus of public debate. A great deal of public attention is being paid to non-transparency of the government process of awarding licenses, the equitable sharing of economic rents between foreign investors and the Government of Mongolia, and the potential impact on the environment. However, the real environmental concern is the sharp boom in the number of informal gold miners, who frequently illegally use mercury, which may lead to an epidemic of mercury poisoning.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

In the wake of the international socialist economic system’s collapse and the disintegration of the former Soviet Union, Mongolians began to pursue an independent and non-aligned foreign policy. Mongolia is landlocked between Russia and China, and seeks cordial relations with both nations. At the same time, Mongolia has sought to advance its regional and global relations. Ties with Japan and South Korea are particularly strong. Japan is the largest bilateral aid donor to Mongolia, a position it has held since 1991. Mongolia has also made efforts to steadily boost ties with European countries.

As part of its aim to establish a more balanced nonaligned foreign policy, Mongolia has sought to take a more active role in the United Nations and other international organizations, and has pursued a more active role in Asian and northeast Asian affairs. Mongolia became a full participant in the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) in July 1998 and a full member of the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council in April 2000. Mongolia is currently seeking to join the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC). Mongolia is an observer in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, but has stated it does not intend to seek membership.

Mongolian relations with China began to improve in the mid-1980s when consular agreements were reached and cross-border trade contacts expanded. In May 1990, a Mongolian head of state visited China for the first time in 28 years. The cornerstone of the Mongolian-Chinese relationship is a 1994 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation, which codifies mutual respect for the independence and territorial integrity of both sides. China has objected strongly to the five visits since 1990 of the Dalai Lama; during the last, in 2002, China briefly disrupted railroad links for “technical” reasons. There are regular high-level visits and expanding trade ties. President Hu Jintao visited Mongolia in 2003. President Bagabandi visited China in 2004, and President Enkhbayar visited in 2005. After the disintegration of the former Soviet Union, Mongolia developed relations with the new independent states. Links with Russia and other republics were essential to contribute to stabilization of the Mongolian economy. In 1991, Mongolia and Russia concluded both a Joint Declaration of Cooperation and a bilateral trade agreement. This was followed by a 1993 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation establishing a new basis of equality in the relationship. Mongolian President Bagabandi visited Moscow in 1999, and Russian President Vladimir Putin visited Mongolia in 2000 in order to sign the 25-point Ulaanbaatar Declaration, reaffirming Mongol-Russian friendship and cooperation on numerous economic and political issues. In December 2003, Mongolia finally settled the Soviet-era debt it owed to Russia with a negotiated payment of $250 million. In July 2006, Prime Minister Fradkov visited Mongolia with a large business delegation. The Mongolian and Russian Governments continue to jointly own the railroad and the large Erdenet copper mine. President Enkhbayar visited Moscow in December 2006.

U.S.-MONGOLIAN RELATIONS

The U.S. Government recognized Mongolia in January 1987 and established its first embassy in Ulaanbaatar in June 1988. It formally opened in September 1988. The first U.S. ambassador to Mongolia, Richard L. Williams, was not resident there. Joseph E. Lake, the first resident ambassador, arrived in July 1990. Secretary of State James A. Baker, III visited Mongolia in August 1990, and again in July 1991. Mongolia accredited its first ambassador to the United States in March 1989. Secretary of State Madeline Albright visited Mongolia in May 1998, and Prime Minister Enkhbayar visited Washington in November 2001. Deputy Secretary of State Richard L. Armitage visited Mongolia in January 2004, and President Bagabandi came to Washington for a meeting with President Bush in July 2004. President Bush, Mrs. Bush, and Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice visited Mongolia in November 2005. Defense Secretary Rumsfeld visited in October 2005 and Speaker of the House of Representatives Dennis Hastert visited Mongolia in August 2005. Agriculture Secretary Johanns led a presidential delegation in July 2006 in conjunction with Mongolia’s celebration of its 800th anniversary.

The United States has sought to assist Mongolia’s movement toward democracy and market-oriented reform and to expand relations with Mongolia primarily in the cultural and economic fields. In 1989 and 1990, a cultural accord, Peace Corps accord, consular convention, and Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) agreement were signed. A trade agreement was signed in January 1991 and a bilateral investment treaty in 1994. Mongolia was granted permanent normal trade relations (NTR) status and generalized system of preferences (GSP) eligibility in June 1999. In July 2004, the U.S. signed a Trade and Investment Framework Agreement with Mongolia to promote economic reform and more foreign investment.

The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) plays a lead role in providing bilateral American assistance to Mongolia. The program emphasizes two main themes: sustainable, private sector-led economic growth; and more effective and accountable governance. Total USAID assistance to Mongolia from 1991 through 2005 was about $150 million, all in grant form. About two-thirds of USAID Mongolia’s current (2006) budget of $7.5 million a year promotes economic growth, and focuses on macroeconomic policy reform, energy sector commercialization, financial sector reform, strengthening the cashmere and tourism industries, and providing business development services to small and medium enterprises in both rural and urban areas. The other third focuses on judicial sector reform, electoral reform, parliamentary reform, and anti-corruption work. In most years since 1993, the United States Department of Agriculture has provided food aid to Mongolia under the Food for Progress and 416(b) programs. The monetized proceeds of the food aid ($3.7 million in 2005) are currently used to support programs bolstering entrepreneurship, herder diversification, better veterinary services, and disaster relief. The United States has also supported defense reform and an increased capacity by Mongolia’s armed forces to participate in international peacekeeping operations. Mongolia has contributed small numbers of troops to coalition operations in Iraq and Afghanistan since 2003, gaining experience which enabled it to deploy armed peacekeepers to both UN and NATO peacekeeping missions in 2005. With U.S. Department of Defense assistance and cooperation, Mongolia and the U.S. jointly hosted “Khan Quest 06,” the Asian region’s premier peacekeeping exercise in 2006. The Peace Corps currently has over 100 Volunteers in Mongolia. They are engaged primarily in English teaching and teacher training activities. At the request of the Government of Mongolia, the Peace Corps has developed programs in the areas of public health, small business development, and youth development.

In 2005 and 2006 Mongolian Government officials, including President Enkhbayar and Prime Minister Elbegdorj, requested significant increases in the number of Volunteers serving in country. The Peace Corps has responded with steady, modest increases each year since 2005. The program celebrated its 15th anniversary in 2006 with participation by President Enkhbayar.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

ULAANBAATAR (E) Address: Micro District 11, Big Ring Road, C.P.O. 1021, Ulaanbaatar; APO/FPO: AmEmbassy Ulaanbaatar PSC 461, Box 300, FPO AP 96521-0002; Phone: (976-11) 329-095; Fax: (976-11) 320-776; INMARSAT Tel: 383130947; Workweek: M-F/0830-1230, 1300-1700; Website: www.usembassy.gov.

AMB:Mark C. Minton
AMB OMS:Klopp, Deborah Ann
DCM:Brian Goldbeck
POL:Patrick Freeman
COM:Paul Herman
CON:Lisa G. Conner
MGT:Harold Zappia
AFSA:Alexei Kral
AGR:(Beijing)
AID:Barry Primm
APHIS:(Beijing)
ATF:(Beijing)
ATO:(Beijing)
CLO:V. Reistad
CUS:(Beijing)
DAO:Anthony Chow
DEA:(Beijing)
ECO:Paul Herman
EPA:(Beijing)
EST:(Beijing)
FAA:(Beijing)
FAA/CASLO:(Beijing)
GSO:Dale Lawton
ICASS Chair:Kenneth Goodson
IMO:Bob Lynn
INS:(Beijing)
IRS:(Toyko)
ISSO:Patrick Kennedy
LAB:(Beijing)
LEGATT:(Beijing)
MLO:Anthony Chow
NAS:(Beijing)
PAO:Alexei Kral
RAMC:(Bangkok)
RSO:Craig Reistad

Last Updated: 1/9/2007

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet : November 27, 2006

Country Description: Mongolia is a vast country of mountains, lakes, deserts and grasslands. It peacefully abandoned its communist system in 1990 and is successfully making the transition to a parliamentary democracy. Economic reforms continue. The country’s development will depend on considerable infrastructure investment, particularly in the energy, transportation, and communication sectors. Travelers to Mongolia should be aware that shortcomings in these areas might have an impact on travel plans.

Entry/Exit Requirements: A valid passport is required for American visitors. No visa is required for Americans visiting for fewer than 90 days; however, visitors planning to stay in Mongolia for more than 30 days are required to register with the Immigration, Naturalization and Foreign Citizens Agency in Ulaanbaatar within the first seven days of arrival. American visitors who fail to register and who stay longer than 30 days, even for reasons beyond their control, will be stopped at departure, denied exit, and fined. It is recommended that if there is any possibility that a visitor will be in Mongolia beyond 30 days that they register with the Immigration, Naturalization and Foreign Citizens Agency within the first seven days of their arrival.

Americans planning to work or study in Mongolia should apply for a visa at a Mongolian Embassy or Consulate overseas. Failure to do so may result in authorities denying registration, levying a fine, and requiring that the visitor leave the country. Travelers arriving or departing Mongolia through China or Russia should be aware of Chinese and Russian visa regulations and note that some land entry points have varying days and hours. American citizens are not permitted to transit through China or Russia without a visa. For more information on these requirements see the Consular Information Sheets for these countries at http://travel.state.gov/. Travelers planning travel to Russia should get visas prior to arriving in Mongolia, as they are difficult to get at the Russian Embassy in Mongolia.

Individuals without Mongolian visas are subject to an exit tax payable either in USD or Mongolian T ugrugs upon departure. This amount may or may not be included with the price of the airline ticket; travelers are advised to confirm when they purchase their airline ticket.

In an effort to prevent international child abduction, many governments have initiated procedures at entry/exit points. These often include requiring documentary evidence of relationship and permission for the child’s travel from the parent(s) or legal guardian if not present. Having such documentation on hand, even if not required, may facilitate entry/departure.

Visit the Embassy of Mongolia web site at http://www.mongolianembassy.us for the most current visa information. Travelers can also contact the Embassy of Mongolia at 2833 M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007, telephone (202) 333-7117 for the most current visa information.

Safety and Security: There have been no significant acts of terrorism, kidnapping, criminal incidents, or extremist activity directed against U.S. interests in Mongolia. There are no regions of instability in the country. U.S. citizens are advised to avoid protests and street demonstrations that occur occasionally in Ulaanbaatar, as the demonstrations may become unruly.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department’s Internet web site, where the current Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, Travel Warnings and Public Announcements, can be found. Americans are reminded to remain vigilant with regard to their personal security and to exercise caution. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S., or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

Crime: Over the past few years there has been a significant rise in street crime in Mongolia, particularly in Ulaanbaatar, the capital. Violent crime is increasing, and it is not advisable to walk alone through the city after dark. The most common crimes against foreigners are pick pocketing and bag snatching. There are reports of organized groups operating in open areas and usually after dark that surround, grab and choke an individual in order to search the victim’s pockets. Thieves have also sliced victims’ clothing in attempts to reach wallets, cell phones and other valuables. U.S. citizens who detect pick pocket attempts should not confront the thieves, as they may become violent. Caution is advised when using public transportation and in crowded public areas, such as open-air markets, the Central Post Office and the Gandan Monastery. Crime sharply rises before, during and after the Naadam Summer Festival in July and throughout the summer tourist season.

Travelers should be extremely cautious at these specific locations:

Chinggis Khan International Airport in Ulaanbaatar: tourists arriving and departing from this airport are frequently targeted for robbery and pick pocketing by organized groups.

The State Department Store: tourists are targeted by organized pick pocket gangs at the entries/exits/elevators and the area surrounding the store.

Naran Tuul Covered Market: Organized criminal groups look for and target foreigners for robbery and pick pocketing.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Medical facilities in Mongolia are very limited and do not meet most western standards, especially for emergency health care requirements. Many brand-name western medicines are unavailable. Ulaanbaatar, the capital, has the majority of medical facilities; outside of Ulaanbaatar medical facilities and treatment are extremely limited or non-existent. Specialized emergency care for infants and the elderly is not available. Infectious diseases, such as plague, meningococcal meningitis, and tuberculosis, are present at various times of the year. Serious medical problems requiring hospitalization and/or medical evacuation to the United States can cost tens of thousands of dollars; see section on Medical Insurance below. Doctors and hospitals usually expect immediate payment in cash for health services. A June 2005 medical evacuation from Ulaanbaatar just to Seoul, Korea cost the patient $87,000. Medevac companies will not initiate an evacuation without a fee guarantee beforehand and in full. Please see medical information for americans traveling abroad.

Local hospitals generally do not contact the Embassy about ill or injured Americans in their care; hospitalized American citizens who need Consular assistance from the Embassy will need to specifically request the doctor or hospital to contact the Embassy in Ulaanbaatar. For more information, please contact the U.S. Embassy in Ulaanbaatar, which has a list of medical facilities available to foreigners (also available on the Embassy website, http://ulaanbaatar.usembassy.gov) or the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s international traveler’s hotline.

Sanitation in some restaurants is inadequate, particularly outside of Ulaanbaatar. Stomach illnesses are frequent. Bottled water and other routine precautions are advisable.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC’s internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization’s (WHO) website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Mongolia is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Driving in the capital city of Ulaanbaatar can be extremely difficult due to poorly maintained streets, malfunctioning traffic lights, inadequate street lighting, undisciplined pedestrians, and a shortage of traffic signs. There has been a dramatic increase in the number of vehicles on the roads in recent years, but the knowledge and skills of the driving population have not kept pace with the growth of automobiles. There are many metered taxis in Ulaanbaatar. There are a few car rental companies operating in Ulaanbaatar, but safety and maintenance standards are uncertain and rental vehicles should be utilized with caution. Another alternative is to hire a car and driver from local tourist companies. Public transportation within the capital is extensive, cheap, and generally reliable, but it is also extremely crowded with the result that pickpockets often victimize foreigners. There are few paved roads outside of the capital, and driving can be hazardous, particularly after dark. For specific information concerning Mongolian drivers permits, vehicle inspection, road tax and mandatory insurance, contact the Embassy of Mongolia at 2833 M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007, telephone (202) 333-7117.

Visit the website of the country’s national tourist office and national authority responsible for road safety at http://www.mongolianembassy.us/default.php.

Aviation Safety Oversight: As there is no direct commercial air service between the United States and Mongolia, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Mongolia’s Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA’s Internet website at http://www.faa.gov.

The U.S. Embassy prohibits the use by U.S. government personnel of the domestic services of MIAT and all services of Hangard and Trans-Ulgii airlines for official travel because of uncertainties regarding service and maintenance schedules, aircraft certification and insurance status. This prohibition does not extend to MIAT’s international flights.

Special Circumstances: Traveler’s checks denominated in U.S. dollars are accepted at some hotels and may be converted to dollars or T ugrugs at several banks. Credit cards can be used at a variety of hotels, restaurants, and shops in Ulaanbaatar. Outside of the capital, travelers should have cash. Cash advances against credit cards are available at commercial banks such as Trade and Development Bank and Golomt Bank. International bank wire transfers are also possible. There are a handful of VISA and Maestro/Cirrus ATM machines in Ulaanbaatar, but they do not always function and are not reliable. ATM machines do not exist outside the capital.

American citizens are encouraged to carry a copy of their passports with them at all times, so that, if questioned by local officials, proof of identity and citizenship are readily available. U.S. consular officers may not always receive timely notification of the detention or arrest of a U.S. citizen, particularly outside of Ulaanbaatar.

Severe fuel shortages and problems with central heating and electrical systems may cause seriously reduced heating levels and power outages in Ulaanbaatar and other cities during the winter. Smaller towns in the countryside may have no heat or electricity at all. The Embassy advises all American residents in Mongolia to be prepared to depart if there is a complete energy failure. General information about natural disaster preparedness is available via the Internet from the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) at http://www.fema.gov/.

Mongolian customs authorities enforce strict regulations concerning import and export of items such as firearms, ammunition and antiquities. Import of firearms or ammunition requires prior approval from the Government of Mongolia. Export of antiquities requires a special customs clearance certificate issued by authorized antique shops at the time of purchase. For additional information contact the Embassy of Mongolia at 2833 M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20402, telephone: (202) 333-7117.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country’s laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Police officials will often require a visitor to remain in Mongolia for an indefinite period of time pending resolution of a filed complaint. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Mongolian laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Mongolia are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children’s Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children’s Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family/family_1732.html.

Registration/Embassy Location: Americans living or traveling in Mongolia are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department’s travel registration website, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Mongolia. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency. The U.S. Embassy is located at Micro Region 11, Big Ring Road, Ulaanbaatar. The telephone number is (976) 11-329-095, the Consular Section fax number is (976) 11-353-788, and the Embassy’s web site is http://ulaanbaatar.usembassy.gov. The Consular Section can be emailed directly at [email protected]. The Consular Section is open for American Citizens Services Monday and Thursday from 1-3 p.m., except on U.S. and Mongolian holidays.

International Adoption : June 6, 2002

Important Notice: U.S. citizens are strongly discouraged from adopting in Mongolia at this time. Adoptions in Mongolia do not clearly meet the requirements of U.S. immigration law and a child adopted in Mongolia may not be eligible to immigrate to the United States. Please check this site in the near future for further details.

Mongolia

views updated Jun 11 2018

MONGOLIA

Compiled from the August 2004 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Mongolia


PROFILE

Geography

Area: 1,566,500 sq. km. (604,103 sq. mi.); slightly larger than Alaska (land boundaries 8,114 km.).

Terrain: Almost 90% of land area is pasture or desert wasteland, of varying usefulness; 1% arable; 9% forested.

Climate: Continental, with little precipitation and sharp seasonal fluctuations.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Mongolian(s).

Population: (2004 est.) 2.751 million.

Annual growth rate: (2004) 1.43%.

Health: (2004) Infant mortality rate—55.45/1,000. Life expectancy—64.17 yrs.

Ethnic groups: (2004) 85% Mongol (predominantly Khalkha), 7% Turkic (largest group, Kazakh) 4.6% Tungusic, and 3.4% others, including Chinese and Russian.

Languages: Khalkha Mongol, more than 90%; other languages include Kazakh, Russian, English, German, and Japanese.

Religions: Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism 94%, Muslim 6% (primarily in the southwest), and Shamanism.

Education: Years compulsory—8 (provided free by the government). Literacy—more than 90%.

Government

Type: Parliamentary form of government, president second in authority to the State Great Hural.

Independence: gained in 1921; in 1990, democratic reform begun and shift from dependence on the former Soviet Union declared.

Constitutions: 1960 and February 12, 1992.

Branches: Executive—power is divided between a president (elected by a popular election in May 2001) and prime minister (current cabinet nominated by the prime minister was formed in August 2004 by the State Great Hural, which was elected in June 2004). Legislative—State Great Hural (76 deputies). Judicial—Constitutional Court is empowered to supervise the implementation of the constitution, makes judgment on the violation of its provisions, and solves disputes. Legal code based on Continental and Russian law is under revision. No provision for judicial review of legislative acts. Legal education at Mongolian State Univ. and private universities. Mongolia accepts ICJ jurisdiction.

Political parties: 24 announced political parties (19 listed under "Government" section).

Suffrage: Universal at 18.

Administrative subdivisions: 18 aimags (provinces) and 3 autonomous cities (Ulaanbaatar, Darhan, and Erdenet).

Economy

GDP: (2003 est.) $4.877 billion.

GDP growth: (2003) 5.0%.

Per capita GDP: (2003 est.) $1,800.

Natural resources: Coal, copper, molybdenum, iron, phosphates, tin, nickel, zinc, wolfram, fluorspar, gold, uranium, petroleum.

Agriculture: (32% of 2003 GDP, livelihood for about 40% of population) Products—livestock and byproducts, hay fodder, vegetables.

Industry: (23% of 2003 GDP, includes mining, manufacturing, utilities and construction) Types—Minerals (primarily copper), animal-derived products, building materials, food/beverage.

Trade: (2002) Exports—$524 million: livestock, animal products, minerals, and textiles. Markets—China 42%, U.S. 31.6%, Russia 9%, Korea 4.3%, Japan 1.2%. Imports—$690.8 million: machinery and equipment, fuels, food products, industrial consumer goods, chemicals, building equipment, vehicles, textiles. Suppliers—Russia 34.4%, China 24.3%, Japan 6.2%, U.S. 3.4%, Germany 4.4%.

Aid received: It is estimated that donors have given one and half billion dollars in aid, loans, and technical assistance over the past decade.

Fiscal year: Calendar year.


PEOPLE

Life in sparsely populated Mongolia has recently become more urbanized. Nearly half of the people live in the capital, Ulaanbaatar, and in other provincial centers. Seminomadic life still predominates in the countryside, but settled agricultural communities are becoming more common. Mongolia's birth rate is estimated at 21.4 births/1000 people (2004). About twothirds of the total population is under age 30, 29.7% of whom are under 14.

Ethnic Mongols account for about 85% of the population and consist of Khalkha and other groups, all distinguished primarily by dialects of the Mongol language. Mongol is an Altaic language—from the Altaic Mountains of Central Asia, a language family comprising the Turkic, Tungusic, and Mongolic subfamilies—and is related to Turkic (Uzbek, Turkish, and Kazakh), Korean, and, possibly, Japanese. The Khalkha make up 90% of the ethnic Mongol population. The remaining 10% include Durbet Mongols and others in the north and Dariganga Mongols in the east. Turkic speakers (Kazakhs, Turvins, and Khotans) constitute 7% of Mongolia's population, and the rest are Tungusic-speakers, Chinese, and Russians. Most Russians left the country following the withdrawal of economic aid and collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.

Traditionally, Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism was the predominant religion. However, it was suppressed under the communist regime until 1990, with only one showcase monastery allowed to remain. Since 1990, as liberalization began, Buddhism has enjoyed a resurgence. About 4 million Mongols live outside Mongolia; about 3.4 million live in China, mainly in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, and some 500,000 live in Russia, primarily in Buryatia and Kalmykia.


HISTORY

In 1203 AD, a single Mongolian state was formed based on nomadic tribal groupings under the leadership of Genghis Khan. He and his immediate successors conquered nearly all of Asia and European Russia and sent armies as far as central Europe and Southeast Asia. Genghis Khan's grandson Kublai Khan, who conquered China and established the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368 AD), gained fame in Europe through the writings of Marco Polo.

Although Mongol-led confederations sometimes exercised wide political power over their conquered territories, their strength declined rapidly after the Mongol dynasty in China was overthrown in 1368. The Manchus, a tribal group which conquered China in 1644 and formed the Qing dynasty, were able to bring Mongolia under Manchu control in 1691 as Outer Mongolia when the Khalkha Mongol nobles swore an oath of allegiance to the Manchu emperor. The Mongol rulers of Outer Mongolia enjoyed considerable autonomy under the Manchus, and all Chinese claims to Outer Mongolia following the establishment of the republic have rested on this oath. In 1727, Russia and Manchu China concluded the Treaty of Khiakta, delimiting the border between China and Mongolia that exists in large part today.

Outer Mongolia was a Chinese province (1691-1911), an autonomous state under Russian protection (1912-19), and again a Chinese province (1919-21). As Manchu authority in China waned, and as Russia and Japan confronted each other, Russia gave arms and diplomatic support to nationalists among the Mongol religious leaders and nobles. The Mongols accepted Russian aid and proclaimed their independence of Chinese rule in 1911, shortly after a successful Chinese revolt against the Manchus. By agreements signed in 1913 and 1915, the Russian Government forced the new Chinese Republican Government to accept Mongolian autonomy under continued Chinese control, presumably to discourage other foreign powers from approaching a newly independent Mongolian state that might seek support from as many foreign sources as possible.

The Russian revolution and civil war afforded Chinese warlords an opportunity to re-establish their rule in Outer Mongolia, and Chinese troops were dispatched there in 1919. Following Soviet military victories over White Russian forces in the early 1920s and the occupation of the Mongolian capital Urga in July 1921, Moscow again became the major out-side influence on Mongolia. The Mongolian People's Republic was proclaimed on November 25, 1924.

Between 1925 and 1928, power under the communist regime was consolidated by the Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Party (MPRP). The MPRP left gradually undermined rightist elements, seizing control of the party and the government. Several factors characterized the country during this period: The society was basically nomadic and illiterate; there was no industrial proletariat; the aristocracy and the religious establishment shared the country's wealth; there was widespread popular obedience to traditional authorities; the party lacked grassroots support; and the government had little organization or experience.

In an effort at swift socioeconomic reform, the leftist government applied extreme measures which attacked the two most dominant institutions in the country—the aristocracy and the religious establishment. Between 1932 and 1945, their excess zeal, intolerance, and inexperience led to anti-communist uprisings. In the late 1930s, purges directed at the religious institution resulted in the desecration of hundreds of Buddhist institutions and imprisonment of more than 10,000 people.

During World War II, because of a growing Japanese threat over the Mongolian-Manchurian border, the Soviet Union reversed the course of Mongolian socialism in favor of a new

policy of economic gradualism and buildup of the national defense. The Soviet-Mongolian army defeated Japanese forces that had invaded eastern Mongolia in the summer of 1939, and a truce was signed setting up a commission to define the Mongolian-Manchurian border in the autumn of that year.

Following the war, the Soviet Union reasserted its influence in Mongolia. Secure in its relations with Moscow, the Mongolian Government shifted to postwar development, focusing on civilian enterprise. International ties were expanded, and Mongolia established relations with North Korea and the new communist governments in eastern Europe. It also increased its participation in communist-sponsored conferences and international organizations. Mongolia became a member of the United Nations in 1961.

In the early 1960s, Mongolia attempted to maintain a neutral position amidst increasingly contentious Sino-Soviet polemics; this orientation changed in the middle of the decade. Mongolia and the Soviet Union signed an agreement in 1966 that introduced large-scale Soviet ground forces as part of Moscow's general buildup along the Sino-Soviet frontier.

During the period of Sino-Soviet tensions, relations between Mongolia and China deteriorated. In 1983, Mongolia systematically began expelling some of the 7,000 ethnic Chinese in Mongolia to China. Many of them had lived in Mongolia since the 1950s, when they were sent there to assist in construction projects.

Chronology of Mongolian History — 1921-Present

March 13, 1921: Provisional People's Government declares independence of Mongolia.

May 31, 1924: U.S.S.R. signs agreement with Peking government, referring to Outer Mongolia as an "integral part of the Republic of China," whose "sovereignty" therein the Soviet Union promises to respect.

May-September 16, 1939: Large scale fighting takes place between Japanese and Soviet-Mongolian forces along Khalkhyn Gol on Mongolia-Manchuria border, ending in defeat of the Japanese expeditionary force. Truce negotiated between U.S.S.R. and Japan.

October 6, 1949: Newly established People's Republic of China accepts recognition accorded Mongolia and agrees to establish diplomatic relations.

October 1961: Mongolia becomes a member of the United Nations.

January 27, 1987: Diplomatic relations established with the United States.

December 1989: First popular reform demonstrations. Mongolian Democratic Association organized.

January 1990: Large scale demonstrations demanding democracy held in sub-zero weather.

March 2, 1990: Soviets and Mongolians announce that all Soviet troops will be withdrawn from Mongolia by 1992.

May 1990: Constitution amended to provide for multi-party system and new elections.

July 29, 1990: First democratic elections held.

September 3, 1990: First democratically elected People's Great Hural takes office.

February 12, 1992: New constitution goes into effect.

April 8, 1992: New election law passed.

June 28, 1992: Election for the first unicameral legislature (State Great Hural).

June 6, 1993: First direct presidential election.

June 30, 1996: Election of first noncommunist government.

July 2, 2000: Election of the former communist Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Party (MPRP); formation of new government by Prime Minister N. Enkhbayar.

June 27, 2004: Election of new Parliament split between former communist party and democratic opposition.


GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Until 1990, the Mongolian Government was modeled on the Soviet system; only the communist party—the MPRP—officially was permitted to function. After some instability during the first two decades of communist rule in Mongolia, there was no significant popular unrest until December 1989. Collectivization of animal husbandry, introduction of agriculture, and the extension of fixed abodes were all carried out without perceptible popular opposition.

The birth of perestroika in the former Soviet Union and the democracy movement in eastern Europe were mirrored in Mongolia. The dramatic shift toward reform started in early 1990 when the first organized opposition group, the Mongolian Democratic Union, appeared. In the face of extended street protests in subzero weather and popular demands for faster reform, the politburo of the MPRP resigned in March 1990. In May, the constitution was amended, deleting reference to the MPRP's role as the guiding force in the country, legalizing opposition parties, creating a standing legislative body, and establishing the office of president.

Mongolia's first multi-party elections for a People's Great Hural were held on July 29, 1990. The MPRP won 85% of the seats. The People's Great Hural first met on September 3 and elected a president (MPRP), vice president (SDP—Social Democrats), prime minister (MPRP), and 50 members to the Baga Hural (small Hural). The vice president also was chairman of the Baga Hural. In November 1991, the People's Great Hural began discussion on a new constitution, which entered into force February 12. In addition to establishing Mongolia as an independent, sovereign republic and guaranteeing a number of rights and freedoms, the new constitution restructured the legislative branch of government, creating a unicameral legislature, the State Great Hural (SGH).

The 1992 constitution provided that the president would be elected by popular vote rather than by the legislature as before. In June 1993, incumbent Punsalmaagiyn Ochirbat won the first popular presidential election running as the candidate of the democratic opposition.

As the supreme government organ, the SGH is empowered to enact and amend laws, determine domestic and foreign policy, ratify international agreements, and declare a state of emergency. The SGH meets semiannually. SGH members elect a chairman and vice chairman who serve 4-year terms. SGH members are popularly elected by district for 4-year terms.

The president is the head of state, commander in chief of the armed forces, and head of the national security council. He is popularly elected by a national majority for a 4-year term and limited to two terms. The constitution empowers the president to propose a prime minister, call for the government's dissolution, initiate legislation, veto all or parts of legislation (the SGH can override the veto with a two-thirds majority), and issue decrees, which become effective with the prime minister's signature. In the absence, incapacity, or resignation of the president, the SGH chairman exercises presidential power until inauguration of a newly elected president.

The government, headed by the prime minister, has a 4-year term. The prime minister is nominated by the president and confirmed by the SGH. The prime minister chooses a cabinet, subject to SGH approval. Dissolution of the government occurs upon the prime minister's resignation, simultaneous resignation of half the cabinet, or after an SGH vote for dissolution.

Local hurals are elected by the 18 aimags (provinces) plus the capital, Ulaanbaatar, and cities of Darhan and Erdenet. On the next lower administrative level, they are elected by provincial subdivisions and urban subdistricts in Ulaanbaatar and the municipalities, Darhan and Erdenet.

Political Parties

Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party
Democratic Party
Mongolian Green Party
Mongolian People's Party
Mongolian Republican Party
Mongolian Workers' Party
Mongolian Traditional United Party
Mongolian Solidarity Party
Mongolian Party for Tradition and Justice
Mongolian Democratic Socialist Party
Mongolian Youth Party
Mongolian Liberal Democratic Party
Mongolian Democratic New Socialist Party
Mongolian Communist Party
Mongolian Local Development Party
Mongolian Civil Democratic New Liberal Party
Mongolian Civil Courage Party
Mongolian New Social Democratic Party
Mongolian United Ethnographical Party

Legal System

The new constitution empowered a General Council of Courts (GCC) to select all judges and protect their rights. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial body. Justices are nominated by the GCC and confirmed by the SGH and president. The court is constitutionally empowered to examine all lower court decisions—excluding specialized court rulings—upon appeal and provide official interpretations on all laws except the constitution.

Specialized civil, criminal, and administrative courts exist at all levels and are not subject to Supreme Court supervision. Local authorities—district and city governors—ensure that these courts abide by presidential decrees and SGH decisions. At the apex of the judicial system is the Constitutional Court, which consists of nine members, including a chairman, appointed for 6-year terms, whose jurisdiction extends solely over the interpretation of the constitution.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 8/25/04

President: Bagabandi , Natsagiyn
Prime Minister: Elbedorj , Tsakhiagiyn
Speaker of the State Great Hural: Enkhbayar , Nambaryn
Chief of Staff: Bayar , Sanjaa
Chief Cabinet Secretariat: Enkhtuvshin , Ulziisaikhany
Secretary, National Security Council: Bold , Ravdangiyn
Min. of Defense: Gurragchaa , Jugderdemidiin
Min. of Education, Culture, & Science: Tsanjid , Ayurzanyn
Min. of Environment & Nature: Barsbold , Ulambayaryn
Min. of Finance & Economics: Ulaan , Chultemin
Min. of Food & Agriculture: Nasanjargal , Darjaagiin
Min. of Foreign Affairs: Erdenechuluun , Luvsangiin
Min. of Health: Nyamdavaa , Pagvajavyn
Min. of Industry & Commerce: Ganzorig , Chimidzorigiin
Min. of Infrastructure: Jigjid , Byambyn
Min. of Justice & Internal Affairs: Nyamdorj , Tsendiin
Min. of Social Welfare & Labor: Batbayar , Shiilegiin
Ambassador to the US: Bold , Ravdangiyn
Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Choisuren , Baatar

Mongolia maintains an embassy in the United States at 2833 M Street, NW, Washington, DC, 20007; tel. (202) 333-7117, fax (202) 298-9227.


ECONOMY

The rapid political changes of 1990-91 marked the beginning of Mongolia's efforts to develop a market economy, but these efforts have been complicated and disrupted by the dissolution and continuing deterioration of the economy of the former Soviet Union. Prior to 1991, 80% of Mongolia's trade was with the former Soviet Union, and 15% was with other Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) countries. Mongolia was heavily dependent upon the former Soviet Union for fuel, medicine, and spare parts for its factories and power plants.

The former U.S.S.R. also served as the primary market for Mongolian industry. In the 1980s, Mongolia's industrial sector became increasingly important. By 1989, it accounted for an estimated 34% of material products, compared to 18% from agriculture. However, minerals, animals, and animal-derived products still constitute a large proportion of the country's exports. Principal imports included machinery, petroleum, cloth, and building materials.

In the late 1980s, the government began to improve links with noncommunist Asia and the West, and a tourism sector developed. As of January 1, 1991, Mongolia and the former Soviet Union agreed to conduct bilateral trade in hard currency at world prices.

Despite its external trade difficulties, Mongolia has continued to press ahead with reform. Privatization of small shops and enterprises is largely complete, and most prices have been freed. Privatization of large state enterprises has begun. Tax reforms also have begun, and the barter and official exchange rates were unified in early 1992.

Between 1990 and 1993, Mongolia suffered triple-digit inflation, rising unemployment, shortages of basic goods, and food rationing. During that period, economic output contracted by one-third. As market reforms and private enterprise took hold, economic growth began again in 1994-95. Unfortunately, since this growth was fueled in part by over-allocation of bank credit, especially to the remaining state-owned enterprises, economic growth was accompanied by a severe weakening of the banking sector. GDP grew by about 6% in 1995, thanks largely to a boom in copper prices. Average real economic growth leveled off to about 3.5% in 1996-99 due to the Asian financial crisis, the collapse of the Russian ruble in mid-1999, and worsening commodity prices, especially copper and gold.

Mongolia's GDP growth fell from 3.2% in 1999 to 1.1% in 2000 and 1.0% in 2001. The disappointing results can be attributed to the loss of 2.4 million livestock in bad weather and natural disasters in 2000 and 2001. Prospects for development out-side the traditional reliance on nomadic, livestock-based agriculture are constrained by Mongolia's land-locked location and lack of basic infrastructure. Mongolia's best hope for accelerated growth is to attract more foreign investment. From 1990 to 2002, more than 2,399 foreign companies from 72 countries have invested a total of $660.5 million in Mongolia. Many believe this number could be dramatically increased if investors had more confidence that their investments would be adequately protected.

Environment

As a result of rapid urbanization and industrial growth policies under the communist regime, Mongolia's deteriorating environment has become a major concern. The burning of soft coal coupled with thousands of factories in Ulaanbaatar has resulted in severely polluted air. Deforestation, overgrazed pastures, and efforts to increase grain and hay production by plowing up more virgin land have increased soil erosion from wind and rain. Most recently, with the rapid growth of newly privatized herds, overgrazing in selected areas also is a concern.


FOREIGN RELATIONS

In the wake of the international socialist economic system's collapse and the disintegration of the former Soviet Union, Mongolians began to pursue an independent and nonaligned foreign policy. The Prime Minister called for coexistence with all nations, and Mongolia follows a general policy of expanding relations with as many countries as possible.

Due to Mongolia's landlocked position between the new independent states (NIS) of the former Soviet Union and China, it was essential to continue and improve relations with these countries. At the same time, Mongolia is reaching out to advance its regional and global relations.

As part of its aim to establish a more balanced nonaligned foreign policy, Mongolia is seeking active supporters and friends beyond its neighbors and looking to take a more active role in the United Nations and other international organizations. While it is downgrading relations with most of its former east European allies, it is pursuing a more active role in Asian and northeast Asian affairs. Mongolia is seeking to join APEC and became a full participant in the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) in July 1998. Mongolia became a full member of the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council in April 2000.

Asia

Mongolian relations with China began to improve in the mid-1980s when consular agreements were reached and cross border trade contacts expanded. In 1989, China and Mongolia exchanged visits of foreign ministers. In May 1990, a Mongolian head of state visited China for the first time in 28 years. The cornerstone of the Mongolian-Chinese relationship is a 1994 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation, which codifies mutual respect for the independence and territorial integrity of both sides. Today, relations between Mongolia and China are correct. The two foreign ministers exchanged visits in 1997, as did the leaders of the two countries' parliaments. President Jiang Zemin visited Mongolia in July 1999 and President Bagabandi paid a state visit to China in July 2004.

Mongolia is expanding relations with Japan and South Korea. Its Prime Minister visited Japan in March 1990 and Prime Minister Obuchi reciprocated with a visit to Mongolia in July 1999. Japan has provided more than $120 million in grants and loans since 1991 and coordinated international assistance to Mongolia. Diplomatic relations were established with South Korea in 1991, and during the Mongolian President's visit, seven agreements and treaties were signed, providing the legal basis for further expanding bilateral relations. Japan is Mongolia's largest bilateral aid donor. In 2001 President Bagabandi made state visits to India and Nepal.

Russia

After the disintegration of the former Soviet Union, Mongolia developed relations with the new independent states. Links with Russia and other republics were essential to contribute to stabilization of the Mongolian economy. The primary obstacle to developing any real coordination was the NIS' own need for the same political and economic restructuring. Despite these difficulties, Mongolia and Russia successfully negotiated both a 1991 Joint Declaration of Cooperation and a bilateral trade agreement. This was followed by a 1993 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation establishing a new basis of equality in the relationship. Mongolian President Bagabandi visited Moscow in 1999, and Russian President Vladimir Putin visited Mongolia in 2000 in order to sign the 25-point Ulaanbaatar Declaration, reaffirming Mongol-Russian friendship and cooperation on numerous economic and political issues. In December 2003, Mongolia finally settled the Sovietera debt it owed to Russia with a negotiated payment of $250 million.

Europe

Mongolia seeks closer relations with countries in Europe and hopes to receive most-favored-nation status from the European Union (EU). During 1991, Mongolia signed investment promotion and protection agreements with Germany and France and an economic cooperation agreement with the United Kingdom. Germany continued former East German cooperative programs and also provided loans and aid. The Prime Minister has traveled to Germany, France, Belgium, and EU headquarters in Brussels seeking economic cooperation. President Bagabandi visited several European capitals in 1999-2000.


U.S.-MONGOLIAN RELATIONS

The U.S. Government recognized Mongolia in January 1987 and established its first embassy in Ulaanbaatar in June 1988. It formally opened in September 1988. The first U.S. ambassador to Mongolia, Richard L. Williams, was not resident there; Joseph E. Lake, the first resident ambassador, arrived in July 1990. Secretary of State James A. Baker, III visited Mongolia in August 1990, and again in July 1991. Mongolia accredited its first ambassador to the United States in March 1989. Secretary of State Madeline Albright visited Mongolia in May 1998, and Prime Minister Enkhbayar visited Washington in November 2001. More recently, Deputy Secretary of State Richard L. Armitage visited Mongolia in January 2004, and President Bagabandi came to Washington for a meeting with President Bush in July 2004.

The United States has sought to assist Mongolia's movement toward democracy and market-oriented reform and to expand relations with Mongolia primarily in the cultural and economic fields. The United States granted Mongolia most-favored-nation status and has supported Mongolia's transition to political democracy and a market economy. In 1989 and 1990, a cultural accord, Peace Corps accord, consular convention, and Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) agreement were signed. A trade agreement was signed in January 1991 and a bilateral investment treaty in 1994. Mongolia was granted permanent NTR status and GSP eligibility in June 1999. In July 2004, the U.S. signed a Trade and Investment Framework Agreement with Mongolia to promote economic reform and more foreign investment.

The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) has provided more than $100 million over the past 7 years in technical assistance and training for Mongolia's democratic and economic reform program. Of that total, some $38 million has gone for emergency energy assistance, which has been instrumental in keeping Mongolia's power and heating system operable through the country's harsh winters. By FY 2000, rural development replaced energy as USAID's main program emphasis. Nearly half of USAID's annual program— $12 million in FY 2003 and $10 million in FY 2004 —is devoted to the Gobi Regional Economic Growth Initiative and other rural transition programs.

The U.S. also is directly supporting Mongolia's democratization by working with U.S. nongovernmental organizations to provide training for parliamentary committee organization and constituent service and has recently launched a program to establish public affairs organizations and legislative relations offices in every ministry. U.S. assistance also provided technical assistance for the drafting of the 1992 constitution, nonpartisan voter education guides, and an election-observer mission for the July 2000 and June 2004 elections.

The U.S. provides support for the Mongolian Government's economic reforms through its Economic Policy Support Project that includes a full-time American policy adviser in the Prime Minister's office. The adviser has worked closely with the Government of Mongolia to set the policy agenda of the current government and provides policy advice and expert technical assistance for the government's major reform initiatives, including privatization, energy, pension, and banking reforms.

The Peace Corps currently has more than 100 volunteers in Mongolia. They are engaged primarily in English teaching and teacher training activities. At the request of the Government of Mongolia, the Peace Corps has developed programs in the areas of public health and the environment.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

ULAANBAATAR (E) Address: Micro District 11, Big Ring Road, C.P.O. 1021, Ulaan; APO/FPO: PSC 461, Box 300, FPO, AP 96521-0002; Phone: (976-11) 329-095; Fax: (976-11) 320-776; INMARSAT Tel: 383130947; Workweek: M–F/0830-1230, 1300-1700; Website: www.usmongolia.com

AMB:Pamela J.H. Slutz
AMB OMS:Jane Lopez
DCM:Mark A. Tokola
POL:Rex-Marc Patterson
COM:Megan Myers
CON:Joan Kane
MGT:J. Denver Herren
AFSA:Scott Weinhold
AGR:(Beijing)
AID:Leon Waskin
APHIS:(Beijing)
ATF:(Beijing)
ATO:(Beijing)
CLO:Jamie Weinhold
CUS:(Beijing)
DAO:Mark Gillette
DEA:(Beijing)
ECO:Megan Myers
EEO:Megan Myers
EPA:(Beijing)
EST:(Beijing)
FAA:(Beijing)
FAA/CASLO:(Beijing)
FMO:David Bodycoat
GSO:Danielle Wood
ICASS Chair:Leon Waskin
IMO:Leo Parpart
INS:(Beijing)
IPO:Leo Parpart
IRS:(Toyko)
ISO:Leo Parpart
ISSO:Leo Parpart
LAB:(Beijing)
LEGATT:(Beijing)
MLO:Mark Gillette
NAS:(Beijing)
PAO:Scott Weinhold
RAMC:(Bangkok)
RSO:Craig Reistad
State ICASS:Rex Patterson
Last Updated: 11/15/2004

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

September 15, 2004

Country Description: Mongolia is a vast country of mountains, lakes, deserts and grasslands. It peacefully abandoned its communist system in 1990 and has successfully made the transition to a parliamentary democracy. Economic reforms continue. The country's development will depend on considerable infrastructure investment, particularly in the energy, transportation, and communication sectors. Travelers to Mongolia should be aware that shortcomings in these areas might have an impact on travel plans.

Entry/Exit Requirements: A valid passport is required for American visitors. No visa is required for Americans visiting for fewer than 90 days. Visitors planning to stay in Mongolia for more than 30 days are required to register with the Immigration, Naturalization and Foreign Citizens Agency in Ulaanbaatar during their first week of arrival. American visitors who fail to register and who stay longer than 30 days may be stopped at departure, denied exit, and fined. Americans planning to work or study in Mongolia should apply for a visa at a Mongolian Embassy or Consulate overseas. Failure to do so may result in authorities denying registration, levying a fine, and requiring that the visitor leave the country. For current information about visas and registration requirements travelers should contact the Embassy of Mongolia at 2833 M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007, telephone: (202) 333-7117 or http://www.mongolianembassy.mn

Travelers arriving or departing Mongolia through China or Russia should be aware of Chinese and Russian visa regulations. American citizens are not permitted to transit through China or Russia without a visa. For more information on China, see the Consular Information Sheet for China; for more information on Russia, see the Consular Information Sheet for Russia at http://travel.state.gov. Travelers planning travel to Russia should get visas prior to arriving in Mongolia. They are difficult to obtain in Mongolia.

In an effort to prevent international child abduction, many governments have initiated procedures at entry/exit points. These often include requiring documentary evidence of relationship and permission for the child's travel from the parent(s) or legal guardian if not present. Having such documentation on hand, even if not required, may facilitate entry/departure.

Safety and Security: There have been no significant acts of terrorism, kidnapping, criminal incidents, or extremist activity directed against U.S. interests in Mongolia. There are no regions of instability in the country. U.S. citizens are advised to avoid the protests and street demonstrations that occasionally occur in Ulaanbaatar, as the demonstrations may become unruly.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Internet web site at http://travel.state.gov where the current Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, Travel Warnings and Public Announcements can be found.

Up-to-date information on security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the United States, or, for callers outside the United States and Canada, a regular toll line at 1-317-472-2328. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

Crime: Over the past few years there has been a significant rise in crime in Mongolia, particularly in Ulaanbaatar, the capital. Violent crime is increasing, and it is not advisable to walk alone through the city after dark. The most common crimes against foreigners are pick pocketing and bag snatching. Travelers should be especially cautious when taking public transportation and in crowded public areas, such as open air markets, the State Department Store, the Central Post Office, and Gandan Monastery. U.S. citizens who detect pickpocketing attempts should not confront the thieves, as they may become violent.

The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, to contact family members or friends and to explain how funds could be transferred.

Although the investigation and prosecution of a crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you understand the local criminal justice process and find an attorney, if needed. U.S. citizens may refer to the Department of State's pamphlet, A Safe Trip Abroad, for ways to promote a trouble-free journey. The pamphlet is available by mail from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402, via the Internet at http://www.gpoaccess.gov, or via the Bureau of Consular Affairs home page at http://travel.state.gov.

Medical Facilities: Medical facilities in Mongolia are limited. Many brand-name western medicines are unavailable. Ulaanbaatar, the capital, has the majority of medical facilities; outside of Ulaanbaatar, medical facilities and treatment are extremely limited or non-existent. Specialized emergency care for infants and the eldery is not available. Infectious diseases, such as plague, meningococcal meningitis, and tuberculosis, are present at various times of the year. Serious medical problems requiring hospitalization and/or medical evacuation to the United States can cost thousands of dollars or more. Doctors and hospitals usually expect immediate payment in cash for health services. Local hospitals generally do not contact the Embassy about ill or injured Americans in their care; hospitalized American citizens who need Consular assistance from the Embassy will need to specifically request the doctor or hospital to contact the Embassy in Ulaanbaatar, For more information, please contact the U.S. Embassy in Ulaanbaatar, which has a list of medical facilities available to foreigners, or the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's international travelers hotline.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and if it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation. U.S. medical insurance plans seldom cover health costs incurred outside the United States, unless supplemental coverage is purchased. Further, U.S. Medicare and Medicaid programs do not provide payment for medical services outside the United States. However, many travel agents and private companies offer insurance plans that will cover health care expenses incurred overseas, including emergency services such as medical evacuations.

When making a decision regarding health insurance, Americans should consider that many foreign doctors and hospitals require payment in cash prior to providing service and that a medical evacuation to the U.S. may cost well in excess of $50,000. Uninsured travelers who require medical care overseas often face extreme difficulties. When consulting with your insurer prior to your trip, please ascertain whether payment will be made to the overseas health-care provider or if you will be reimbursed later for expenses you incur. Some insurance policies also include coverage for psychiatric treatment and for disposition of remains in the event of death. Useful information on medical emergencies abroad, including overseas insurance programs, is provided in the Department of State's, Bureau of Consular Affairs brochure Medical Information for Americans Traveling Abroad, available via the Bureau of Consular Affairs home page at http://travel.state.gov.

Other Health Information: Sanitation in some restaurants is inadequate, particularly outside of Ulaanbaatar. Stomach illnesses are frequent. Bottled water and other routine precautions are advisable. Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747); fax 1-888-CDC-FAXX, (1-888-232-3299), or via the CDC's Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad, consult the World Health Organization's website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Mongolia is provided for general reference only and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance:

Safety of Public Transportation: Poor
Urban Road Conditions/Maintenance: Poor
Rural Road Conditions/Maintenance: Poor
Availability of Roadside Assistance: Poor

Driving in the capital city of Ulaanbaatar can be extremely difficult due to poorly maintained streets, malfunctioning traffic lights, inadequate street lighting, undisciplined pedestrians, and a shortage of traffic signs. There has been a dramatic increase in the number of vehicles on the roads in recent years, but the knowledge and skills of the driving population have not kept pace with the growth of automobiles. There are many metered taxis in Ulaanbaatar. There are no car rental companies operating in Mongolia, but it is possible to hire a car and driver from tourist companies. Public transportation within the capital is extensive, cheap, and generally reliable, but it is also extremely crowded (see information on crime above) with the result that pickpockets often victimize foreigners. There are few paved roads out-side of the capital, and driving can be hazardous, particularly after dark. For additional general information about road safety, including links to foreign government sites, see the Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs home page at http://travel.state.gov/travel/abroad_roadsafety.html. For specific information concerning Mongolian driver's permits, vehicle inspection, road tax and mandatory insurance, contact the Embassy of Mongolia at 2833 M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007, telephone: (202) 333-7117.

Aviation Safety Oversight: As there is no direct commercial air service between the U.S. and Mongolia at present, nor economic authority to operate such service, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Mongolia's Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with international aviation safety standards for oversight of Mongolia's air carrier operations. For further information, travelers may contact the Department of Transportation within the U.S. at 1-800-322-7873, or visit the FAA's Internet web site at http://www.faa.gov/avr/iasa/index.cfm.

Mongolia has upgraded its aviation facilities and communications and air traffic control capabilities. However, the American Embassy has reported some general safety and reliability concerns regarding domestic flights operated by the national airline MIAT. The Embassy does not prohibit its employees from flying on MIAT, but does encourage them to exercise prudence and good judgment when boarding domestic flights. If Embassy employees see potential hazards, such as missing safety belts or passenger overcrowding, they are advised to get off the plane and wait for another flight.

Customs Regulations: Mongolian customs authorities enforce strict regulations concerning import and export of items such as firearms, ammunition and antiquities. Import of firearms or ammunition requires prior approval from the Government of Mongolia. Export of antiquities requires a special customs clearance certificate issued by authorized antique shops at the time of purchase. For additional information contact the Embassy of Mongolia at 2833 M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20402, tel: (202) 333-7117.

In many countries around the world, counterfeit and pirated goods are widely available. Transactions involving such products are illegal and bringing them back to the United States may result in forfeitures and/or fines. A current list of those countries with serious problems in this regard can be found here.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, an American citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Mongolian law, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested, or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Mongolia are strict, and convicted offenders can expect jail sentences and heavy fines.

Under the PROTECT Act of April 2003, it is a crime, prosecutable in the United States, for a U.S. citizen or permanent resident alien, to engage in illicit sexual conduct in a foreign country with a person under the age of 18, whether or not the U.S. citizen or lawful permanent resident alien intended to engage in such illicit sexual conduct prior to going abroad.

For purposes of the PROTECT Act, illicit sexual conduct includes any commercial sex act in a foreign country with a person under the age of 18. The law defines a commercial sex act as any sex act, on account of which anything of value is given to or received by a person under the age of 18.

Under the Protection of Children from Sexual Predators Act of 1998, it is a crime to use the mail or any facility of interstate or foreign commerce, including the Internet, to transmit information about a minor under the age of 16 for criminal sexual purposes that include, among other things, the production of child pornography. This same law makes it a crime to use any facility of interstate or foreign commerce, including the Internet, to transport obscene materials to minors under the age of 16.

Consular Access: American citizens are encouraged to carry a copy of their passports with them at all times, so that, if questioned by local officials, proof of identity and citizen-ship are readily available. U.S. consular officers may not always receive timely notification of the detention or arrest of a U.S. citizen, particularly outside of Ulaanbaatar. U.S. citizens who are detained or arrested in Mongolia should request contact with the U.S. Embassy and visitation by a U.S. consular officer.

Special Circumstances: Traveler's checks denominated in dollars are accepted at some hotels and may be converted to dollars or Tugriks at several banks. Credit cards can be used at a variety of hotels, restaurants, and shops in Ulaanbaatar. Outside of the capital, travelers should have cash. Cash advances against credit cards are available at commercial banks such as Trade and Development Bank and Golomt Bank. International bank wire transfers are also possible. There is a handful of ATM machines in Ulaanbaatar, but none outside the capital.

Disaster Preparedness—Winter Power Shortages: Severe fuel shortages and problems with central heating and electrical systems may cause seriously reduced heating levels and power outages in Ulaanbaatar and other cities during the winter. Smaller towns in the countryside may have no heat or electricity at all. The Embassy advises all American residents in Mongolia to be prepared to depart if there is a complete energy failure. General information about natural disaster preparedness is available via the Internet from the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) at http://www.fema.gov.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, please refer to the Department of State Internet site at http://travel.state.gov/family/index.html or telephone Overseas Citizens Services at 1-888-407-4747. This number is available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays). Callers who are unable to use toll-free numbers, such as those calling from overseas, may obtain information and assistance during these hours by calling 1-317-472-2328.

Registration/Embassy Location: Americans living in or visiting Mongolia are encouraged to register with the Consular Section of the American Embassy in Mongolia through the State Department's travel registration website, https://travelregistration.state.gov, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Mongolia. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the U.S. Embassy in Ulaanbaatar. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy to contact them in case of emergency. Americans traveling to Mongolia are also strongly encouraged to leave contact and itinerary information with people back in the United States, who would have the ability to contact the Embassy in case of emergencies. The U.S. Embassy is located in Micro Region 11, Big Ring Road, Ulaanbaatar. The telephone number is (976)-11-329-095; the Consular Section fax number is (976)-11-353-788; the Embassy web site is http://www.usmongolia.com.

Mongolia

views updated May 11 2018

MONGOLIA

Compiled from the June 2005 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Mongolia


PROFILE

Geography

Area:

1,566,500 sq. km. (604,103 sq. mi.); slightly larger than Alaska (land boundaries 8,114 km.).

Terrain:

Almost 90% of land area is pasture or desert, of varying usefulness; 1% arable; 9% forested.

Climate:

Continental, with little precipitation and sharp seasonal fluctuations.

People

Nationality:

Noun and adjective—Mongolian(s).

Population (2004 est.):

2.751 million.

Annual growth rate (2004):

1.43%.

Health (2004):

Infant mortality rate—55.45/1,000. Life expectancy—64.17 yrs.

Ethnic groups (2004):

85% Mongol (predominantly Khalkha), 7% Turkic (largest group, Kazakh) 4.6% Tungusic, and 3.4% others, including Chinese and Russian.

Language:

Mongolian, Kazakh, Russian, and English.

Religion:

Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism 94%, Muslim 6% (primarily in the southwest), and Shamanism.

Education:

Years compulsory—8 (provided free by the government). Literacy—more than 90%.

Government

Type:

Multiparty parliamentary form of government.

Independence:

gained in 1921; in 1990, democratic reform begun and shift from dependence on the former Soviet Union declared.

Constitutions:

1960 and February 12, 1992.

Branches:

Executive—power is divided between a president (elected by a popular election in May 2005) and prime minister (current cabinet nominated by the prime minister was formed in September 2004 by the State Great Hural, which was elected in June 2004). Legislative—State Great Hural (76 deputies). Judicial—Constitutional Court is empowered to supervise the implementation of the constitution, makes judgment on the violation of its provisions, and solves disputes. Legal code based on Continental and Russian law is under revision. No provision for judicial review of legislative acts. Legal education at Mongolian State Univ. and private universities. Mongolia accepts ICJ jurisdiction.

Political parties:

24 announced political parties (19 listed under "Government" section).

Suffrage:

Universal at 18.

Administrative subdivisions:

18 aimags (provinces) and 3 autonomous cities (Ulaanbaatar, Darhan, and Erdenet).

Economy

GDP (2003 est.):

$4.877 billion.

GDP growth (2004):

10.6%.

Per capita GDP in PPP (2003 est.):

$1,800.

Natural resources:

Coal, copper, molybdenum, iron, phosphates, tin, nickel, zinc, wolfram, fluorspar, gold, uranium, and petroleum.

Agriculture (32% of 2003 GDP, livelihood for about 40% of population):

Products—livestock and byproducts, hay fodder, vegetables.

Industry (23% of 2003 GDP, includes mining, manufacturing, utilities and construction):

Types—Minerals (primarily copper and gold), animal-derived products, building materials, food/beverage.

Trade (2003):

Exports—$615.9 million: livestock, animal products, minerals, and textiles. Markets—China 46.6%, U.S. 23.2%, Russia 6.7%, Korea 4.3%, Japan 1.2%. Imports—$801 million: machinery and equipment, fuels, food products, industrial consumer goods, chemicals, building equipment, vehicles, textiles. Suppliers—Russia 33.1%, China 24.3%, Japan 7.9%, U.S. 2.9%, Germany 4.4%.

Aid received:

It is estimated that donors have given one and half billion dollars in aid, loans, and technical assistance over the past decade.

Fiscal year:

Calendar year.


PEOPLE

Life in sparsely populated Mongolia has recently become more urbanized. Nearly half of the people live in the capital, Ulaanbaatar, and in other provincial centers. Semi-nomadic life still predominates in the countryside, but settled agricultural communities are becoming more common. Mongolia's birth rate is estimated at 21.4 births/1000 people (2004). About twothirds of the total population is under age 30, 29.7% of whom are under 14.

Ethnic Mongols account for about 85% of the population and consist of Khalkha and other groups, all distinguished primarily by dialects of the Mongol language. Mongol is an Altaic language—from the Altaic Mountains of Central Asia, a language family comprising the Turkic, Tungusic, and Mongolic subfamilies—and is related to Turkic (Uzbek, Turkish, and Kazakh), Korean, and, possibly, Japanese. The Khalkha make up 90% of the ethnic Mongol population. The remaining 10% include Durbet Mongols and others in the north and Dariganga Mongols in the east. Turkic speakers (Kazakhs, Turvins, and Khotans) constitute 7% of Mongolia's population, and the rest are Tungusic-speakers, Chinese, and Russians. Most Russians left the country following the withdrawal of economic aid and collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.

Traditionally, Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism was the predominant religion. However, it was suppressed under the communist regime until 1990, with only one showcase monastery allowed to remain. Since 1990, as liberalization began, Buddhism has enjoyed a resurgence. About 4 million Mongols live outside Mongolia; about 3.4 million live in China, mainly in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, and some 500,000 live in Russia, primarily in Buryatia and Kalmykia.


HISTORY

In 1203 AD, a single Mongolian state was formed based on nomadic tribal groupings under the leadership of Genghis Khan. He and his immediate successors conquered nearly all of Asia and European Russia and sent armies as far as central Europe and Southeast Asia. Genghis Khan's grandson Kublai Khan, who conquered China and established the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368 AD), gained fame in Europe through the writings of Marco Polo.

Although Mongol-led confederations sometimes exercised wide political power over their conquered territories, their strength declined rapidly after the Mongol dynasty in China was overthrown in 1368. The Manchus, a tribal group which conquered China in 1644 and formed the Qing dynasty, were able to bring Mongolia under Manchu control in 1691 as Outer Mongolia when the Khalkha Mongol nobles swore an oath of allegiance to the Manchu emperor. The Mongol rulers of Outer Mongolia enjoyed considerable autonomy under the Manchus, and all Chinese claims to Outer Mongolia following the establishment of the republic have rested on this oath. In 1727, Russia and Manchu China concluded the Treaty of Khiakta, delimiting the border between China and Mongolia that exists in large part today.

Outer Mongolia was a Chinese province (1691-1911), an autonomous state under Russian protection (1912-19), and again a Chinese province (1919-21). As Manchu authority in China waned, and as Russia and Japan confronted each other, Russia gave arms and diplomatic support to nationalists among the Mongol religious leaders and nobles. The Mongols accepted Russian aid and proclaimed their independence of Chinese rule in 1911, shortly after a successful Chinese revolt against the Manchus. By agreements signed in 1913 and 1915, the Russian Government forced the new Chinese Republican Government to accept Mongolian autonomy under continued Chinese control, presumably to discourage other foreign powers from approaching a newly independent Mongolian state that might seek support from as many foreign sources as possible.

The Russian revolution and civil war afforded Chinese warlords an opportunity to re-establish their rule in Outer Mongolia, and Chinese troops were dispatched there in 1919. Following Soviet military victories over White Russian forces in the early 1920s and the occupation of the Mongolian capital Urga in July 1921, Moscow again became the major out-side influence on Mongolia. The Mongolian People's Republic was proclaimed on November 25, 1924.

Between 1925 and 1928, power under the communist regime was consolidated by the Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Party (MPRP). The MPRP left gradually undermined rightist elements, seizing control of the party and the government. Several factors characterized the country during this period: The society was basically nomadic and illiterate; there was no industrial proletariat; the aristocracy and the religious establishment shared the country's wealth; there was widespread popular obedience to traditional authorities; the party lacked grassroots support; and the government had little organization or experience.

In an effort at swift socioeconomic reform, the leftist government applied extreme measures that attacked the two most dominant institutions in the country—the aristocracy and the religious establishment. Between 1932 and 1945, their excess zeal, intolerance, and inexperience led to anti-communist uprisings. In the late 1930s, purges directed at the religious institution resulted in the desecration of hundreds of Buddhist institutions and imprisonment of more than 10,000 people.

During World War II, because of a growing Japanese threat over the Mongolian-Manchurian border, the Soviet Union reversed the course of Mongolian socialism in favor of a new policy of economic gradualism and buildup of the national defense. The Soviet-Mongolian army defeated Japanese forces that had invaded eastern Mongolia in the summer of 1939, and a truce was signed setting up a commission

to define the Mongolian-Manchurian border in the autumn of that year.

Following the war, the Soviet Union reasserted its influence in Mongolia. Secure in its relations with Moscow, the Mongolian Government shifted to postwar development, focusing on civilian enterprise. International ties were expanded, and Mongolia established relations with North Korea and the new communist governments in Eastern Europe. It also increased its participation in communist-sponsored conferences and international organizations. Mongolia became a member of the United Nations in 1961.

In the early 1960s, Mongolia attempted to maintain a neutral position amidst increasingly contentious Sino-Soviet polemics; this orientation changed in the middle of the decade. Mongolia and the Soviet Union signed an agreement in 1966 that introduced large-scale Soviet ground forces as part of Moscow's general buildup along the Sino-Soviet frontier.

During the period of Sino-Soviet tensions, relations between Mongolia and China deteriorated. In 1983, Mongolia systematically began expelling some of the 7,000 ethnic Chinese in Mongolia to China. Many of them had lived in Mongolia since the 1950s, when they were sent there to assist in construction projects.

Chronology of Mongolian History 1921-Present

March 13, 1921:

Provisional People's Government declares independence of Mongolia.

May 31, 1924:

U.S.S.R. signs agreement with Peking government, referring to Outer Mongolia as an "integral part of the Republic of China," whose "sovereignty" therein the Soviet Union promises to respect.

May-September 16, 1939:

Large scale fighting takes place between Japanese and Soviet-Mongolian forces along Khalkhyn Gol on Mongolia-Manchuria border, endingin defeat of the Japanese expeditionary force. Truce negotiated between U.S.S.R. and Japan.

October 6, 1949:

Newly established People's Republic of China accepts recognition accorded Mongolia and agrees to establish diplomatic relations.

October 1961:

Mongolia becomes a member of the United Nations.

January 27, 1987:

Diplomatic relations established with the United States.

December 1989:

First popular reform demonstrations. Mongolian Democratic Association organized.

January 1990:

Large-scale demonstrations demanding democracy held in sub-zero weather.

March 2, 1990:

Soviets and Mongolians announce that all Soviet troops will be withdrawn from Mongolia by 1992.

May 1990:

Constitution amended to provide for multi-party system and new elections.

July 29, 1990:

First democratic elections held.

September 3, 1990:

First democratically elected People's Great Hural takes office.

February 12, 1992:

New constitution goes into effect.

April 8, 1992:

New election law passed.

June 28, 1992:

Election for the first unicameral legislature (State Great Hural).

June 6, 1993:

First direct presidential election.

June 30, 1996:

Election resulted in peaceful transition of power from former communist party to coalition of democratic parties. From 1998-2000, four prime ministers and a series of cabinet changes. In early 2000, Democratic Coalition dissolved.

July 2, 2000:

Election resulted in victory for the former communist Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Party (MPRP); first-past-the-post electoral system enabled MPRP, with 52% of the popular vote, to win 95% of the parliamentary seats; formation of new government by Prime Minister N. Enkhbayar.

June 27, 2004:

Motherland-Democracy Coalition formed in early 2004 to contest the parliamentary election. Election resulted in roughly 50/50 split of parliamentary seats between former communist party and democratic opposition and formation of new government by Prime Minister T. Elbegdorj (Democratic Party).


GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Until 1990, the Mongolian Government was modeled on the Soviet system; only the communist party—the MPRP—officially was permitted to function. After some instability during the first two decades of communist rule in Mongolia, there was no significant popular unrest until December 1989. Collectivization of animal husbandry, introduction of agriculture, and the extension of fixed abodes were all carried out without perceptible popular opposition.

The birth of perestroika in the former Soviet Union and the democracy movement in Eastern Europe were mirrored in Mongolia. The dramatic shift toward reform started in early 1990 when the first organized opposition group, the Mongolian Democratic Union, appeared. In the face of extended street protests in subzero weather and popular demands for faster reform, the politburo of the MPRP resigned in March 1990. In May, the constitution was amended, deleting reference to the MPRP's role as the guiding force in the country, legalizing opposition parties, creating a standing legislative body, and establishing the office of president.

Mongolia's first multi-party elections for a People's Great Hural were held on July 29, 1990. The MPRP won 85% of the seats. The People's Great Hural first met on September 3 and elected a president (MPRP), vice president (SDP—Social Democrats), prime minister (MPRP), and 50 members to the Baga Hural (small Hural). The vice president also was chairman of the Baga Hural. In November 1991, the People's Great Hural began discussion on a new constitution, which entered into force February 12. In addition to establishing Mongolia as an independent, sovereign republic and guaranteeing a number of rights and freedoms, the new constitution restructured the legislative branch of government, creating a unicameral legislature, the State Great Hural (SGH).

The 1992 constitution provided that the president would be elected by popular vote rather than by the legislature as before. In June 1993, incumbent Punsalmaagiyn Ochirbat won the first popular presidential election running as the candidate of the democratic opposition.

As the supreme government organ, the SGH is empowered to enact and amend laws, determine domestic and foreign policy, ratify international agreements, and declare a state of emergency. The SGH meets semiannually. SGH members elect a chairman and vice chairman who serve 4-year terms. SGH members are popularly elected by district for 4-year terms.

The president is the head of state, commander in chief of the armed forces, and head of the national security council. He is popularly elected by a national majority for a 4-year term and limited to two terms. The constitution empowers the president to propose a prime minister, call for the government's dissolution, initiate legislation, veto all or parts of legislation (the SGH can override the veto with a two-thirds majority), and issue decrees, which become effective with the prime minister's signature. In the absence, incapacity, or resignation of the president, the SGH chairman exercises presidential power until inauguration of a newly elected president.

The government, headed by the prime minister, has a 4-year term. The prime minister is nominated by the president and confirmed by the SGH. The prime minister chooses a cabinet, subject to SGH approval. Dissolution of the government occurs upon the prime minister's resignation, simultaneous resignation of half the cabinet, or after an SGH vote for dissolution.

Local hurals are elected by the 18 aimags (provinces) plus the capital, Ulaanbaatar, and cities of Darhan and Erdenet. On the next lower administrative level, they are elected by provincial subdivisions and urban subdistricts in Ulaanbaatar and the municipalities, Darhan and Erdenet.

Political Parties

  • Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party
  • Democratic Party • Mongolian Green Party
  • Mongolian People's Party
  • Mongolian Republican Party
  • Mongolian Workers' Party
  • Mongolian Traditional United Party
  • Mongolian Solidarity Party
  • Mongolian Party for Tradition and Justice
  • Mongolian Democratic Socialist Party
  • Mongolian Youth Party
  • Mongolian Liberal Democratic Party
  • Mongolian Democratic New Socialist Party
  • Mongolian Communist Party
  • Mongolian Local Development Party
  • Mongolian Civil Democratic New Liberal Party
  • Mongolian Civil Courage Party
  • Mongolian New Social Democratic Party
  • Mongolian United Ethnographical Party

Legal System

The 1992 constitution empowered a General Council of Courts (GCC) to select all judges and protect their rights. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial body. Justices are nominated by the GCC and confirmed by the SGH and president. The court is constitutionally empowered to examine all lower court decisions—excluding specialized court rulings—upon appeal and provide official interpretations on all laws except the constitution.

Specialized civil, criminal, and administrative courts exist at all levels and are not subject to Supreme Court supervision. Local authorities—district and city governors—ensure that these courts abide by presidential decrees and SGH decisions. At the apex of the judicial system is the Constitutional Court, which consists of nine members, including a chairman, appointed for 6-year terms, whose jurisdiction extends solely over the interpretation of the constitution.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 12/15/2005

President: Nambaryn ENKHBAYAR
Speaker, State Great Hural: Tsend NYAMDORJ
Prime Minister: Tsakhia ELBEGDORJ
Dep. Prime Min.: Chultem ULAAN
Chief of Staff: Sanjaa BAYAR
Chief, Cabinet Secretariat: Sangajav BAYARTSOGT
Secretary, National Security Council: Dugerjav GOTOV
Min. of Construction & Urban Development: Nyamjav BATBAYAR
Min. of Defense: Tserenkhuu SHARAVDORJ
Min. of Education, Culture, & Science: Puntsag TSAGAAN
Min. of Environment: Ulambayaryn BARSBOLD
Min. of Finance: Norov ALTANHUYAG
Min. of Food & Agriculture: Dendev TERBISHDAGVA
Min. of Foreign Affairs: Tsend MUNH ORGIL
Min. of Fuel & Energy: Tuvden OCHIRKHUU
Min. of Health: Tugsjargal GANDI
Min. of Industry & Trade: Sukhgaatar BATBOLD
Min. of Justice & Internal Affairs: Batbold SANDUI
Min. of Roads, Transportation & Tourism: Gavaa BATKHUU
Min. of Social Welfare & Labor: Tsevelmaa BAYARSAIKHAN
Min. in Charge of Disaster Relief: Ukhnaa KHURELSUKH
Min. in Charge of Professional Inspections: Ichinkhorloo ERDENEBAATAR
Ambassador to the US: Ravdangiyn BOLD
Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Baatar CHOISUREN

Mongolia maintains an embassy in the United States at 2833 M Street, NW, Washington, DC, 20007; tel. (202) 333-7117, fax (202) 298-9227.


ECONOMY

Economic activity in Mongolia has traditionally been based on herding and agriculture. Mongolia has extensive mineral deposits; copper, coal, molybdenum, tin, tungsten, and gold account for a large part of industrial production. Soviet assistance, at its height one-third of GDP, disappeared almost overnight in 1990-91 at the time of the dismantlement of the U.S.S.R. The following decade saw Mongolia endure both deep recession due to political inaction and natural disasters as well as economic growth due to reform embracing free-market economics and extensive privatization of the formerly state-run economy. Severe winters and summer droughts in 2000-2001 and 2001-2002 resulted in massive livestock die-off and zero or negative GDP growth. This was compounded by falling prices for Mongolia's primary-sector exports and widespread opposition to privatization. Growth improved from 2002 at 4% to 2003 at 5%, due largely to high copper prices and new gold production, with the government claiming a 10.6% growth rate for 2004 that is unconfirmed. Mongolia's economy continues to be heavily impacted by its neighbors. For example, Mongolia purchases 80% of its petroleum products and a substantial amount of electric power from Russia, leaving it vulnerable to price increases. China is Mongolia's chief export partner and a main source of the "shadow," or "gray" economy. The World Bank and other international financial institutions (IFIs) estimate the gray economy to be at least equal to that of the official economy (US$1.4 billion in 2003). The actual size of this gray—largely cash—economy is difficult to calculate since the money does not pass through the hands of tax authorities or the banking sector. Remittances from Mongolians working abroad both legally and illegally constitute a sizeable portion. Money laundering is growing as an accompanying concern. Mongolia settled its large debt to Russia at the end of 2003 on very favorable terms. Mongolia, which joined the World Trade Organization in 1997, is the only member of that organization to not be a participant in a regional trade organization. Mongolia seeks to expand its participation and integration into Asian regional economic and trade regimes.

Environment

As a result of rapid urbanization and industrial growth policies under the communist regime, Mongolia's deteriorating environment has become a major concern. The burning of soft coal coupled with thousands of factories in Ulaanbaatar has resulted in severely polluted air. Deforestation, overgrazed pastures, and efforts to increase grain and hay production by plowing up more virgin land have increased soil erosion from wind and rain. Most recently, with the rapid growth of newly privatized herds, overgrazing in selected areas also is a concern.


FOREIGN RELATIONS

In the wake of the international socialist economic system's collapse and the disintegration of the former Soviet Union, Mongolians began to pursue an independent and nonaligned foreign policy. The Prime Minister called for coexistence with all nations, and Mongolia follows a general policy of expanding relations with as many countries as possible.

Due to Mongolia's landlocked position between the new independent states (NIS) of the former Soviet Union and China, it was essential to continue and improve relations with these countries. At the same time, Mongolia is reaching out to advance its regional and global relations.

As part of its aim to establish a more balanced nonaligned foreign policy, Mongolia is seeking active supporters and friends beyond its neighbors and looking to take a more active role in the United Nations and other international organizations. While it is downgrading relations with most of its former east European allies, it is pursuing a more active role in Asian and northeast Asian affairs. Mongolia is seeking to join APEC and became a full participant in the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) in July 1998. Mongolia became a full member of the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council in April 2000.

Asia

Mongolian relations with China began to improve in the mid-1980s when consular agreements were reached and cross border trade contacts expanded. In 1989, China and Mongolia exchanged visits of foreign ministers. In May 1990, a Mongolian head of state visited China for the first time in 28 years. The cornerstone of the Mongolian-Chinese relationship is a 1994 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation, which codifies mutual respect for the independence and territorial integrity of both sides. Today, relations between Mongolia and China are correct. The two foreign ministers exchanged visits in 1997, as did the leaders of the two countries' parliaments. President Jiang Zemin visited Mongolia in July 1999 and President Bagabandi paid a state visit to China in July 2004.

Mongolia is expanding relations with Japan and South Korea. Its Prime Minister visited Japan in March 1990 and Prime Minister Obuchi reciprocated with a visit to Mongolia in July 1999. Japan has provided more than $120 million in grants and loans since 1991 and coordinated international assistance to Mongolia. Diplomatic relations were established with South Korea in 1991, and during the Mongolian President's visit, seven agreements and treaties were signed, providing the legal basis for further expanding bilateral relations. Japan is Mongolia's largest bilateral aid donor. In 2001 President Bagabandi made state visits to India and Nepal.

Russia

After the disintegration of the former Soviet Union, Mongolia developed relations with the new independent states. Links with Russia and other republics were essential to contribute to stabilization of the Mongolian economy. The primary obstacle to developing any real coordination was the NIS' own need for the same political and economic restructuring. Despite these difficulties, Mongolia and Russia successfully negotiated both a 1991 Joint Declaration of Cooperation and a bilateral trade agreement. This was followed by a 1993 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation establishing a new basis of equality in the relationship. Mongolian President Bagabandi visited Moscow in 1999, and Russian President Vladimir Putin visited Mongolia in 2000 in order to sign the 25-point Ulaanbaatar Declaration, reaffirming Mongol-Russian friendship and cooperation on numerous economic and political issues. In December 2003, Mongolia finally settled the Soviet-era debt it owed to Russia with a negotiated payment of $250 million.

Europe

Mongolia seeks closer relations with countries in Europe and hopes to receive most-favored-nation status from the European Union (EU). During 1991, Mongolia signed investment promotion and protection agreements with Germany and France and an economic cooperation agreement with the United Kingdom. Germany continued former East German cooperative programs and also provided loans and aid. The Prime Minister has traveled to Germany, France, Belgium, and EU headquarters in Brussels seeking economic cooperation. President Bagabandi visited several European capitals in 1999-2000.


U.S.-MONGOLIAN RELATIONS

The U.S. Government recognized Mongolia in January 1987 and established its first embassy in Ulaanbaatar in June 1988. It formally opened in September 1988. The first U.S. ambassador to Mongolia, Richard L. Williams, was not resident there. Joseph E. Lake, the first resident ambassador, arrived in July 1990. Secretary of State James A. Baker, III visited Mongolia in August 1990, and again in July 1991. Mongolia accredited its first ambassador to the United States in March 1989. Secretary of State Madeline Albright visited Mongolia in May 1998, and Prime Minister Enkhbayar visited Washington in November 2001. More recently, Deputy Secretary of State Richard L. Armitage visited Mongolia in January 2004, and President Bagabandi came to Washington for a meeting with President Bush in July 2004.

The United States has sought to assist Mongolia's movement toward democracy and market-oriented reform and to expand relations with Mongolia primarily in the cultural and economic fields. The United States granted Mongolia most-favored-nation status and has supported Mongolia's transition to political democracy and a market economy. In 1989 and 1990, a cultural accord, Peace Corps accord, consular convention, and Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) agreement were signed. A trade agreement was signed in January 1991 and a bilateral investment treaty in 1994. Mongolia was granted permanent normal trade relations (NTR) status and generalized system of preferences (GSP) eligibility in June 1999. In July 2004, the U.S. signed a Trade and Investment Framework Agreement with Mongolia to promote economic reform and more foreign investment.

The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) has provided more than $100 million over the past 7 years in technical assistance and training for Mongolia's democratic and economic reform program. Of that total, some $38 million has gone for emergency energy assistance, which has been instrumental in keeping Mongolia's power and heating system operable through the country's harsh winters. By FY 2000, rural development replaced energy as USAID's main program emphasis. Nearly half of USAID's annual program—$12 million in FY 2003 and $10 million in FY 2004—is devoted to the Gobi Regional Economic Growth Initiative and other rural transition programs.

The U.S. also is directly supporting Mongolia's democratization by working with U.S. nongovernmental organizations to provide training for parliamentary committee organization and constituent service and has recently launched a program to establish public affairs organizations and legislative relations offices in every ministry. U.S. assistance also provided technical assistance for the drafting of the 1992 constitution, nonpartisan voter education guides, and an election-observer mission for the July 2000 and June 2004 elections.

The U.S. provides support for the Mongolian Government's economic reforms through its Economic Policy Support Project that includes a full-time American policy adviser in the Prime Minister's office. The adviser has worked closely with the Government of Mongolia to set the policy agenda of the current government and provides policy advice and expert technical assistance for the government's major reform initiatives, including privatization, energy, pension, and banking reforms.

The Peace Corps currently has more than 100 volunteers in Mongolia. They are engaged primarily in English teaching and teacher training activities. At the request of the Government of Mongolia, the Peace Corps has developed programs in the areas of public health and the environment.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

ULAANBAATAR (E) Address: Micro District 11, Big Ring Road, C.P.O. 1021, Ulaan; APO/FPO: PSC 461, Box 300, FPO, AP 96521-0002; Phone: (976-11) 329-095; Fax: (976-11) 320-776; INMARSAT Tel: 383130947; Workweek: M-F/0830-1230, 1300-1700; Website: www.usmongolia.com.

AMB:Pamela J.H. Slutz
AMB OMS:Jane Lopez
DCM:Brian Goldbeck
POL:Patrick Freemen
COM:Megan Myers
CON:Joan Kane
MGT:J. Denver Herren
AFSA:Scott Weinhold
AGR:(Beijing)
AID:Leon Waskin
APHIS:(Beijing)
ATF:(Beijing)
ATO:(Beijing)
CLO:Ingrid Gillette
CUS:(Beijing)
DAO:Mark Gillette
DEA:(Beijing)
ECO:Megan Myers
EEO:Megan Myers
EPA:(Beijing)
EST:(Beijing)
FAA:(Beijing)
FAA/CASLO:(Beijing)
GSO:Danielle Wood
ICASS Chair:Joan Kane
IMO:Bob Lynn
INS:(Beijing)
IRS:(Toyko)
ISSO:Patrick Kennedy
LAB:(Beijing)
LEGATT:(Beijing)
MLO:Mark Gillette
NAS:(Beijing)
PAO:Scott Weinhold
RAMC:(Bangkok)
RSO:Craig Reistad
State ICASS:Joan Kane
Last Updated: 12/6/2005

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

October 21, 2005

Country Description:

Mongolia is a vast country of mountains, lakes, deserts and grasslands. It peacefully abandoned its communist system in 1990 and has successfully made the transition to a parliamentary democracy. Economic reforms continue. The country's development will depend on considerable infrastructure investment, particularly in the energy, transportation, and communication sectors. Travelers to Mongolia should be aware that shortcomings in these areas might have an impact on travel plans.

Entry/Exit Requirements:

A valid passport is required for American visitors. No visa is required for Americans visiting for fewer than 90 days; however, visitors planning to stay in Mongolia for more than 30 days are required to register with the Immigration, Naturalization and Foreign Citizens Agency in Ulaanbaatar within the first seven days of arrival. American visitors who fail to register and who stay longer than 30 days, even for reasons beyond their control, will be stopped at departure, denied exit, and fined. It is recommended that if there is any possibility that a visitor will be in Mongolia beyond 30 days that they register with the Immigration, Naturalization and Foreign Citizens Agency within the first seven days of their arrival.

Americans planning to work or study in Mongolia should apply for a visa at a Mongolian Embassy or Consulate overseas. Failure to do so may result in authorities denying registration, levying a fine, and requiring that the visitor leave the country. Travelers arriving or departing Mongolia through China or Russia should be aware of Chinese and Russian visa regulations. American citizens are not permitted to transit through China or Russia without a visa. For more information on these requirements see the Consular Information Sheets for these countries at http://travel.state.gov. Travelers planning travel to Russia should get visas prior to arriving in Mongolia as they are difficult to get at the Russian Embassy in Mongolia.

There is an exit tax payable either in USD or tugrugs collected on departures from individuals without Mongolian visas. This amount may or may not be included with the price of the airline ticket; travelers are advised to confirm when they purchase their airline ticket.

In an effort to prevent international child abduction, many governments have initiated procedures at entry/exit points. These often include requiring documentary evidence of relationship and permission for the child's travel from the parent(s) or legal guardian if not present. Having such documentation on hand, even if not required, may facilitate entry/departure.

Visit the Embassy of Mongolia web site at http://www.mongolianembassy.us/default.php for the most current visa information. Travelers can also contact the Embassy of Mongolia at 2833 M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007, telephone (202) 333-7117 for the most current visa information.

Safety and Security:

There have been no significant acts of terrorism, kidnapping, criminal incidents, or extremist activity directed against U.S. interests in Mongolia. There are no regions of instability in the country. U.S. citizens are advised to avoid protests and street demonstrations that occur occasionally in Ulaanbaatar, as the demonstrations may become unruly.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Internet web site at http://travel.state.gov where the current Travel Warnings and Public Announcements, including the Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S., or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

Crime:

Over the past few years there has been a significant rise in street crime in Mongolia, particularly in Ulaanbaatar, the capital. Violent crime is increasing, and it is not advisable to walk alone through the city after dark. The most common crimes against foreigners are pick pocketing and bag snatching. There are reports of organized groups in open areas surrounding, grabbing and choking an individual in order to search victim's pockets. U.S. citizens who detect pick pocket attempts should not confront the thieves, as they may become violent. Caution is advised when using public transportation and in crowded public areas, such as open air markets, the Central Post Office and the Gandan Monastery. Crime sharply rises before, during and after the Naadam Summer Festival in July and throughout the summer tourist season. Travelers should be extremely cautious at these specific locations: Buyant-Ukhaa International Airport in Ulaanbaatar: tourists arriving and departing from this airport are frequently targeted for robbery and pick pocketing by organized groups.

The State Department Store:

tourists are targeted by organized pick pocket gangs at the entries/exits/elevators and the area surrounding the store.

Information for Victims of Crime:

The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information:

Medical facilities in Mongolia are very limited and do not meet most Western standards, especially for emergency health care requirements. Many brand-name western medicines are unavailable. Ulaanbaatar, the capital, has the majority of medical facilities; outside of Ulaanbaatar medical facilities and treatment are extremely limited or non-existent. Specialized emergency care for infants and the elderly is not available. Infectious diseases, such as plague, meningococcal meningitis, and tuberculosis, are present at various times of the year. Serious medical problems requiring hospitalization and/or medical evacuation to the United States can cost thousands of dollars; see section on Medical Insurance below. Doctors and hospitals usually expect immediate payment in cash for health services. A June 2005 medical evacuation from Ulaanbaatar just to Seoul, Korea cost the patient $87,000. Medevac companies will not initiate an evacuation without a fee guarantee beforehand and in full. The U.S. State Department has compiled a list of worldwide air ambulance services for people needing medical evacuation at http://www.travel.state.gov/travel/tips/health/health_1185.html.

Local hospitals generally do not contact the Embassy about ill or injured Americans in their care; hospitalized American citizens who need Consular assistance from the Embassy will need to specifically request the doctor or hospital to contact the Embassy in Ulaanbaatar. For more information, please contact the U.S. Embassy in Ulaanbaatar, which has a list of medical facilities available to foreigners, or the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's international travelers hotline.

Sanitation in some restaurants is inadequate, particularly outside of Ulaanbaatar. Stomach illnesses are frequent. Bottled water and other routine precautions are advisable.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC's Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's (WHO) website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance:

The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation (See Medical Facilities and Health Information).

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions:

While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Mongolia is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Driving in the capital city of Ulaanbaatar can be extremely difficult due to poorly maintained streets, malfunctioning traffic lights, inadequate street lighting, undisciplined pedestrians, and a shortage of traffic signs. There has been a dramatic increase in the number of vehicles on the roads in recent years, but the knowledge and skills of the driving population have not kept pace with the growth of automobiles. There are many metered taxis in Ulaanbaatar. There is one car rental company operating in Ulaanbaatar, but safety and maintenance standards are uncertain and should be utilized with caution. Another alternative is to hire a car and driver from local tourist companies. Public transportation within the capital is extensive, cheap, and generally reliable, but it is also extremely crowded (see Information on crime above) with the result that pick pockets often victimize foreigners. There are few paved roads out-side of the capital, and driving can be hazardous, particularly after dark. For specific information concerning Mongolian driver's permits, vehicle inspection, road tax and mandatory insurance, contact the Embassy of Mongolia at 2833 M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007, telephone (202) 333-7117.

Visit the website of the country's national tourist office and national authority responsible for road safety at http://www.mongolianembassy.us/default.php.

Aviation Safety Oversight:

As there is no direct commercial air service between the United States and Mongolia, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Mongolia's Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with ICAO international aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA's internet web site at http://www.faa.gov/safety/programs_initiatives/oversight/iasa.

The U.S. Embassy prohibits U.S. government personnel use of MIAT domestic service for official travel because of uncertainties regarding MIAT's service schedule, aircraft certification and insurance status. This prohibition does not extend to MIAT's international flights.

Special Circumstances:

Traveler's checks denominated in dollars are accepted at some hotels and may be converted to dollars or tugrugs at several banks. Credit cards can be used at a variety of hotels, restaurants, and shops in Ulaanbaatar. Outside of the capital, travelers should have cash. Cash advances against credit cards are available at commercial banks such as Trade and Development Bank and Golomt Bank. International bank wire transfers are also possible. There are a handful of VISA only ATM machines in Ulaanbaatar, but that they do not always function and are not reliable. ATM machines do not exist outside the capital.

American citizens are encouraged to carry a copy of their passports with them at all times, so that, if questioned by local officials, proof of identity and citizenship are readily available. U.S. consular officers may not always receive timely notification of the detention or arrest of a U.S. citizen, particularly outside of Ulaanbaatar.

Severe fuel shortages and problems with central heating and electrical systems may cause seriously reduced heating levels and power outages in Ulaanbaatar and other cities during the winter. Smaller towns in the countryside may have no heat or electricity at all. The Embassy advises all American residents in Mongolia to be prepared to depart if there is a complete energy failure. General information about natural disaster preparedness is available via the Internet from the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) at http://www.fema.gov/.

Mongolian customs authorities enforce strict regulations concerning import and export of items such as firearms, ammunition and antiquities. Import of firearms or ammunition requires prior approval from the Government of Mongolia. Export of antiquities requires a special customs clearance certificate issued by authorized antique shops at the time of purchase. For additional information contact the Embassy of Mongolia at 2833 M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20402, telephone: (202) 333-7117.

Criminal Penalties:

While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Mongolian laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Mongolia are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in illicit sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children's Issues:

For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children's Issues website at http://www.travel.state.gov/family/family_1732.html.

Registration/Embassy Location:

Americans living or traveling in Mongolia are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department's travel registration website, https://travelregistration.state.gov, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Mongolia. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency. The U.S. Embassy is located at Micro Region 11, Big Ring Road, Ulaanbaatar. The telephone number is (976) 11-329-095, the Consular Section fax number is (976) 11-353-788, the Embassy web site is http://ulaanbaatar.usembassy.gov/home/index.shtml. The Consular Section can be emailed directly at [email protected]. The Consular Section is open Monday and Thursday from 1-3 p.m., except on U.S. and Mongolian holidays.

International Adoption

June 6, 2002

Important Notice:

U.S. citizens are strongly discouraged from adopting in Mongolia at this time. Adoptions in Mongolia do not clearly meet the requirements of U.S. immigration law and a child adopted in Mongolia may not be eligible to immigrate to the United States.

Mongolia

views updated Jun 27 2018

MONGOLIA

Compiled from the September 2003 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.


Official Name:
Mongolia


PROFILE
PEOPLE
HISTORY
GOVERNMENT
ECONOMY
FOREIGN RELATIONS
U.S.-MONGOLIAN RELATIONS
TRAVEL


PROFILE


Geography

Area: 1,566,500 sq. km. (604,103 sq. mi.); slightly larger than Alaska (land boundaries 8,114 km.).
Terrain: Almost 90% of land area is pasture or desert wasteland, of varying usefulness; 1% arable; 9% forested.

Climate: Continental, with little precipitation and sharp seasonal fluctuations.


People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Mongolian(s).

Population: (mid-2000) 2.65 million.

Annual growth rate: (2000) 1.54%.

Health: (2000) Infant mortality rate—41.2/1,000. Life expectancy—67.25 yrs.

Ethnic groups (1995): 85% Mongol (predominantly Khalkha), 7% Turkic (largest group, Kazakh) 4.6% Tungusic, and 3.4% others, including Chinese and Russian.

Languages: Khalkha Mongol, more than 90%; minor languages include Kazakh, Chinese, and Russian.

Religions: Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism 96%, Muslim 4% (primarily in the southwest), and Shamanism.

Education: Years compulsory —8 (provided free by the government). Literacy—more than 85%.

Government

Type: Parliamentary form of government, president second in authority to the State Great Hural.

Independence: 1921; democratic reform and shift from dependence on the former Soviet Union declared 1990.

Constitutions: 1960 and February 12, 1992.

Branches: Executive—power is divided between a president (elected by a popular election in May 1997) and prime minister (current cabinet nominated by the prime minister was formed in August 2000 by the State Great Hural, which was elected in July 2000). Legislative—State Great Hural (76 deputies). Judicial—Constitutional Court is empowered to supervise the implementation of the constitution, makes judgment on the violation of its provisions, and solves disputes. Legal code based on Continental and Russian law is under revision. No provision for judicial review of legislative acts. Legal education at Mongolian State Univ. and private universities. Mongolia accepts ICJ jurisdiction.

Political parties: 24 announced political parties (19 listed under "Government" section).

Suffrage: Universal at 18.

Administrative subdivisions: 18 aimags (provinces) and 3 autonomous cities (Ulaanbaatar, Darhan, and Erdenet).

Economy

GDP: (2002)$1108 million.

GDP growth: (2002) 3.9%.

Per capita GDP: (2002)$450.

Natural resources: Coal, copper, molybdenum, iron, phosphates, tin, nickel, zinc, wolfram, fluorspar, gold, uranium, petroleum.

Agriculture: (21% of 2002 GDP, livelihood for about 40% of population) Products—livestock and byproducts, hay fodder, vegetables.

Industry: (includes mining, manufacturing, utilities and construction, 24% of 2002 GDP) Types—Minerals (primarily copper), animal-derived products, building materials, food/beverage.

Trade: (2002) Exports—$524 million: livestock, animal products, minerals, and textiles. Markets—China 42%, U.S. 31.6%, Russia 9%, Korea 4.3%, Japan 1.2%. Imports Suppliers—Russia 34.4%, China 24.3%, Japan 6.2%, U.S. 3.4%, Germany
4.4%.

Aid received: It is estimated that donors have given one and half billion in aid, loans, and technical assistance over the past decade.

Fiscal year: Calendar year.




PEOPLE

Life in sparsely populated Mongolia has become more urbanized. Nearly half of the people live in the capital, Ulaanbaatar, and in other provincial centers. Seminomadic life still predominates in the countryside, but settled agricultural communities are becoming more common. Mongolia's birth rate is estimated at 1.4% (2000 census). About two-thirds of the total population are under age 30, 36% of whom are under 14.


Ethnic Mongols account for about 85% of the population and consist of Khalkha and other groups, all distinguished primarily by dialects of the Mongol language. Mongol is an Altaic language—from the Altaic Mountains of Central Asia, a language family comprising the Turkic, Tungusic, and Mongolic subfamilies—and is related to Turkic (Uzbek, Turkish, and Kazakh), Korean, and, possibly, Japanese. The Khalkha make up 90% of the ethnic Mongol population. The remaining 10% include Durbet Mongols and others in the north and Dariganga Mongols in the east. Turkic speakers (Kazakhs, Turvins, and Khotans) constitute 7% of Mongolia's population, and the rest are Tungusic-speakers, Chinese, and Russians. Most Russians left the country following the withdrawal of economic aid and collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.


Traditionally, Tibet an Buddhist Lamaism was the predominant religion. However, it was suppressed under the communist regime until 1990, with only one showcase monastery allowed to remain. Since 1990, as liberalization began, Buddhism has enjoyed a resurgence. About 4 million Mongols live outside Mongolia; about
3.4 million live in China, mainly in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, and some 500,000 live in Russia, primarily in Buryatia and Kalmykia.




HISTORY

In 1203 AD, a single Mongolian state was formed based on nomadic tribal groupings under the leadership of Genghis Khan. He and his immediate successors conquered nearly all of Asia and European Russia and sent armies as far as central Europe and Southeast Asia. Genghis Khan's grandson Kublai Khan, who conquered China and established the Yuandynasty (1279-1368 AD), gained fame in Europe through the writings of Marco Polo.

Although Mongol-led confederations sometimes exercised wide political power over their conquered territories, their strength declined rapidly after the Mongol dynasty in China was overthrown in 1368. The Manchus, a tribal group which conquered China in 1644 and formed the Qingdynasty, were able to bring Mongolia under Manchu control in 1691 as Outer Mongolia when the Khalkha Mongol nobles swore an oath of allegiance to the Manchu emperor. The Mongol rulers of Outer Mongolia enjoyed considerable autonomy under the Manchus, and all Chinese claims to Outer Mongolia following the establishment of the republic have rested on this oath. In 1727, Russia and Manchu China concluded the Treaty of Khiakta, delimiting the border between China and Mongolia that exists in large part today.


Outer Mongolia was a Chinese province (1691-1911), an autonomous state under Russian protection (1912-19), and again a Chinese province (1919-21). As Manchu authority in China waned, and as Russia and Japan confronted each other, Russia gave arms and diplomatic support to nationalists among the Mongol religious leaders and nobles. The Mongols accepted Russian aid and proclaimed their independence of Chinese rule in 1911, shortly after a successful Chinese revolt against the Manchus. By agreements signed in 1913 and 1915, the Russian Government forced the new Chinese Republican Government to accept Mongolian autonomy under continued Chinese control, presumably to discourage other foreign powers from approaching a newly independent Mongolian state that might seek support from as many foreign sources as possible.


The Russian revolution and civil war afforded Chinese warlords an opportunity to re-establish their rule in Outer Mongolia, and Chinese troops were dispatched there in 1919. Following Soviet military victories over White Russian forces in the early 1920s and the occupation of the Mongolian capital Urga in July 1921, Moscow again became the major outside influence on Mongolia. The Mongolian People's Republic was proclaimed on November 25, 1924.

Between 1925 and 1928, power under the communist regime was consolidated by the Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Party (MPRP). The MPRP left gradually undermined rightist elements, seizing control of the party and the government. Several factors characterized the country during this period: The society was basically nomadic and illiterate; there was no industrial proletariat; the aristocracy and the religious establishment shared the country's wealth; there was widespread popular obedience to traditional authorities; the party lacked grassroots support; and the government had little organization or experience.


In an effort at swift socioeconomic reform, the leftist government applied extreme measures which attacked the two most dominant institutions in the country—the aristocracy and the religious establishment. Between 1932 and 1945, their excess zeal, intolerance, and inexperience led to anti-communist uprisings. In the late 1930s, purges directed at the religious institution resulted in the desecration of hundreds of Buddhist institutions and imprisonment of more than 10,000 people.


During World War II, because of a growing Japanese threat over the Mongolian-Manchurian border, the Soviet Union reversed the course of Mongolian socialism in favor of a new policy of economic gradualism and buildup of the national defense. The Soviet-Mongolian army defeated Japanese forces that had invaded eastern Mongolia in the summer of 1939, and a truce was signed setting up a commission to define the Mongolian-Manchurian border in the autumn of that year.


Following the war, the Soviet Union reasserted its influence in Mongolia. Secure in its relations with Moscow, the Mongolian Government shifted to postwar development, focusing on civilian enterprise. International ties were expanded, and Mongolia established relations with North Korea and the new communist governments in eastern Europe. It also increased its participation in communist-sponsored conferences and international organizations. Mongolia became a member of the United Nations in 1961.


In the early 1960s, Mongolia attempted to maintain a neutral position amidst increasingly contentious Sino-Soviet polemics; this orientation changed in the middle of the decade. Mongolia and the Soviet Union signed an agreement in 1966 that introduced largescale Soviet ground forces as part of Moscow's general build up a long the Sino-Soviet frontier.

During the period of Sino-Soviet tensions, relations between Mongolia and China deteriorated. In 1983, Mongolia systematically began expelling some of the 7,000 ethnic Chinese in Mongolia to China. Many of them had lived in Mongolia since the 1950s, when they were sent there to assist in construction projects.


Chronology of Mongolian History 1921-Present

  • March 13, 1921: Provisional People's Government declares independence of Mongolia.
  • May 31, 1924: U.S.S.R. signs agreement with Peking government, referring to Outer Mongolia as an "integral part of the Republic of China," whose "sovereignty" therein the Soviet Union promises to respect.
  • May-September 16, 1939: Largescale fighting takes place between Japanese and Soviet-Mongolian forces along Khalkhyn Golon Mongolia-Manchuria border, ending in defeat of the Japanese expeditionary force. Truce negotiated between U.S.S.R. and Japan.
  • October 6, 1949: Newly established People's Republic of China accepts recognition accorded Mongolia and agrees to establish diplomatic relations.
  • October 1961: Mongolia becomes a member of the United Nations.
  • January 27, 1987: Diplomatic relations established with the United States.
  • December 1989: First popular reform demonstrations. Mongolian Democratic Association organized.
  • January 1990: Large-scale demonstrations demanding democracy held in sub-zero weather.
  • March 2, 1990: Soviets and Mongolians announce that all Soviet troops will be withdrawn from Mongolia by 1992.
  • May 1990: Constitution amended to provide for multi-party system and new elections.
  • July 29, 1990: First democratic elections held.
  • September 3, 1990: First democratically elected People's Great Huraltakes office.
  • February 12, 1992: New constitution goes into effect.
  • April 8, 1992: New election law passed.
  • June 28, 1992: Election for the first unicameral legislature (State Great Hural).
  • June 6, 1993: First direct presidential election.
  • June 30, 1996: Election of first noncommunist government.
  • July 2, 2000: Election of the former communist Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Party (MPRP); formation of new government by Prime Minister N. Enkhbayar.



GOVERNMENT

Until 1990, the Mongolian Government was modeled on the Soviet system; only the communist party—the MPRP—officially was permitted to function. After some instability during the first two decades of communist rule in Mongolia, there was no significant popular unrest until December 1989. Collectivization of animal husbandry, introduction of agriculture, and the extension of fixed abodes were all carried out without perceptible popular opposition.


The birth of perestroika in the former Soviet Union and the democracy movement in eastern Europe were mirrored in Mongolia. The dramatic shift toward reform started in early 1990 when the first organized opposition group, the Mongolian Democratic Union, appeared. In the face of extended street protests in subzero whether and popular demands for faster reform, the politburo of the MPRP resigned in March 1990. In May, the constitution was amended, deleting reference to the MPRP's role as the guiding force in the country, legalizing opposition parties, creating a standing legislative body, and establishing the office of president.


Mongolia's first multi-party elections for a People's Great Hural were held on July 29, 1990. The MPRP won 85% of the seats. The People's Great Hural first met on September 3 and elected a president (MPRP), vice president (SDP—Social Democrats), prime minister (MPRP), and 50 members to the Baga Hural (small Hural). The vice president also was chairman of the Baga Hural. In November 1991, the People's Great Hural began discussion on a new constitution, which entered into force February 12. In addition to establishing Mongolia as an independent, sovereign republic and guaranteeing a number of rights and freedoms, the new constitution restructured the legislative branch of government, creating a unicameral legislature, the State Great Hural (SGH).

The 1992 constitution provided that the president would be elected by popular vote rather than by the legislature as before. In June 1993, incumbent Punsalmaagiyn Ochirbat won the first popular presidential election running as the candidate of the democratic opposition.


As the supreme government organ, the SGH is empowered to enact and amend laws, determine domestic and foreign policy, ratify international agreements, and declare a state of emergency. The SGH meets semiannually. SGH members elect a chairman and vice chairman who serve 4-year terms. SGH members are popularly elected by district for 4-year terms.


The president is the head of state, commander in chief of the armed forces, and head of the National Security Council. He is popularly elected by a national majority for a 4-year term and limited to two terms. The constitution empowers the president to propose a prime minister, call for the government's dissolution, initiate legislation, veto all or parts of legislation (the SGH can override the veto with a two-thirds majority), and issue decrees, which become effective with the prime minister's signature. In the absence, incapacity, or resignation of the president, the SGH chairman exercises presidential power until inauguration of a newly elected president.


The government, headed by the prime minister, has a 4-year term. The prime minister is nominated by the president and confirmed by the SGH. The prime minister chooses a cabinet, subject to SGH approval. Dissolution of the government occurs upon the prime minister's resignation, simultaneous resignation of half the cabinet, or after an SGH vote for dissolution.


Local hurals are elected by the 18 aimags (provinces) plus the capital, Ulaanbaatar, and cities of Darhan and Erdenet. On the next lower administrative level, they are elected by provincial subdivisions and urban subdistricts in Ulaanbaatar and the municipalities, Darhan and Erdenet.


Political Parties

  • Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party
  • Democratic Party
  • Mongolian Green Party
  • Mongolian People's Party
  • Mongolian Republican Party
  • Mongolian Workers' Party
  • Mongolian Traditional United Party
  • Mongolian Solidarity Party
  • Mongolian Party for Tradition and Justice
  • Mongolian Democratic Socialist Party
  • Mongolian Youth Party
  • Mongolian Liberal Democratic Party
  • Mongolian Democratic New Socialist Party
  • Mongolian Communist Party
  • Mongolian Local Development Party
  • Mongolian Civil Democratic New Liberal Party
  • Mongolian Civil Courage Party
  • Mongolian New Social Democratic Party
  • Mongolian United Ethnographical Party

Legal System

The new constitution empowered a General Council of Courts (GCC) to select all judges and protect their rights. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial body. Justices are nominated by the GCC and confirmed by the SGH and president. The court is constitutionally empowered to examine all lower court decisions—excluding specialized court rulings—upon appeal and provide official interpretations on all laws except the constitution.


Specialized civil, criminal, and administrative courts exist at all levels and are not subject to Supreme Court supervision. Local authorities—district and city governors—ensure that these courts abide by presidential decrees and SGH decisions. At the apex of the judicial system is the Constitutional Court, which consists of nine members, including a chairman, appointed for 6-year terms, who se jurisdiction extends solely over the interpretation of the constitution.


Principal Government Officials
Last Updated: 7/7/03


President: Bagabandi, Natsagiyn

Prime Minister: Enkhbayar, Nambaryn

Speaker of State Hural: Tomor-Ochir, Sanjbegziyn

Chief of Staff: Bayar, Sanjaa

Chief Cabinet Secretariat: Enkhtuvshin, Ulziisaikhany

Secretary, National Security Council: Bold, Ravdangiyn

Min. of Defense: Gurragchaa, Jugderdemidiin

Min. of Education, Culture, & Science: Tsanjid, Ayurzanyn

Min. of Environment & Nature: Barsbold, Ulambayaryn

Min. of Finance & Economics: Ulaan, Chultemin

Min. of Food & Agriculture: Nasanjargal, Darjaagiin

Min. of Foreign Affairs: Erdenechuluun, Luvsangiin

Min. of Health: Nyamdavaa, Pagvajavyn

Min. of Industry & Commerce: Ganzorig, Chimidzorigiin

Min. of Infrastructure: Jigjid, Byambyn

Min. of Justice & Internal Affairs: Nyamdorj, Tsendiin

Min. of Social Welfare & Labor: Batbayar, Shiilegiin

Ambassador to the US: Choinhor, Jalbuugiyn

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Choisuren, Baatar



Mongolia maintains an embassy in the United States at 2833 M Street, NW, Washington, DC, 20007; tel. (202) 333-7117, fax (202) 298-9227.




ECONOMY

The rapid political changes of 1990-91 marked the beginning of Mongolia's efforts to develop a market economy, but these efforts have been complicated and disrupted by the dissolution and continuing deterioration of the economy of the former Soviet Union. Prior to 1991, 80% of Mongolia's trade was with the former Soviet Union, and 15% was with other Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) countries. Mongolia was heavily dependent upon the former Soviet Union for fuel, medicine, and spare parts for its factories and power plants.


The former U.S.S.R. also served as the primary market for Mongolian industry. In the 1980s, Mongolia's industrial sector became increasingly important. By 1989, it accounted for an estimated 34% of material products, compared to 18% from agriculture. However, minerals, animals, and animal-derived products still constitute a large proportion of the country's exports. Principal imports included machinery, petroleum, cloth, and building materials.


In the late 1980s, the government began to improve links with noncommunist Asia and the West, and a tourism sector developed. As of January 1, 1991, Mongolia and the former Soviet Union agreed to conduct bilateral trade in hard currency at world prices.


Despite its external trade difficulties, Mongolia has continued to press ahead with reform. Privatization of small shops and enterprises is largely complete, and most prices have been freed. Privatization of large state enterprises has begun. Tax reforms also have begun, and the barter and official exchange rates were unified in early 1992.


Between 1990 and 1993, Mongolia suffered triple-digit inflation, rising unemployment, shortages of basic goods, and food rationing. During that period, economic output contracted by one-third. As market reforms and private enterprise took hold, economic growth began again in 1994-95. Unfortunately, since this growth was fueled in part by over-allocation of bank credit, especially to the remaining state-owned enterprises, economic growth was accompanied by a severe weakening of the banking sector. GDP grew by about 6% in 1995, thanks largely to a boom in copper prices. Average real economic growth leveled off to about 3.5% in 1996-99 due to the Asian financial crisis, the collapse of the Russian ruble in mid-1999, and worsening commodity prices, especially copper and gold.


Mongolia's GDP growth fell from 3.2% in 1999 to 1.1% in 2000 and 1.0% in 2001. The disappointing results can be attributed to the loss of 2.4 million livestock in bad weather and natural disasters in 2000 and 2001. Prospects for development outside the traditional reliance on nomadic, livestock-based agriculture are constrained by Mongolia's landlocked location and lack of basic infrastructure. Mongolia's best hope for accelerated growth is to attract more foreign investment. From 1990 to 2002, more than 2,399 foreign companies from 72 countries have invested a total of $660.5 million in Mongolia. Many believe this number could be dramatically increased if investors had more confidence that their investments would be adequately protected.


Environment

As a result of rapid urbanization and industrial growth policies under the communist regime, Mongolia's deteriorating environment has become a major concern. The burning of soft coal coupled with thousands of factories in Ulaanbaatar has resulted in severely polluted air. Deforestation, overgrazed pastures, and efforts to increase grain and hay production by plowing up more virgin land has increased soil erosion from wind and rain. Most recently, with the rapid growth of newly privatized herds, overgrazing in selected areas also is a concern.




FOREIGN RELATIONS

In the wake of the international socialist economic system's collapse and the disintegration of the former Soviet Union, Mongolians began to pursue an independent and non-aligned foreign policy. The Prime Minister called for coexistence with all nations, and Mongolia follows a general policy of expanding relations with as many countries as possible.


Due to Mongolia's landlocked position between the new independent states (NIS) of the former Soviet Union and China, it was essential to continue and improve relations with these countries. At the same time, Mongolia is reaching out to advance its regional and global relations.


As part of its aim to establish a more balanced nonaligned foreign policy, Mongolia is seeking active supporters and friends beyond its neighbors and looking to take a more active role in the United Nations and other international organizations. While it is downgrading relations with most of its former east European allies, it is pursuing a more active role in Asian and northeast Asian affairs. Mongolia is seeking to join APEC and be came a full participant in the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) in July 1998. Mongolia became a full member of the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council in April 2000.


Asia

Mongolian relations with China began to improve in the mid-1980s when consular agreements were reached and crossborder trade contacts expanded. In 1989, China and Mongolia exchanged visits of foreign ministers. In May 1990, a Mongolian head of state visited China for the first time in 28 years. The cornerstone of the Mongolian-Chinese relation ship is a 1994 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation, which codifies mutual respect for the independence and territorial integrity of both sides. Today, relations between Mongolia and China are correct. The two foreign ministers exchanged visits in 1997, as did the leaders of the two countries' parliaments. President Jiang Zemin visited Mongolia in July 1999.

Mongolia is expanding relations with Japan and South Korea. Its Prime Minister visited Japan in March 1990 and Prime Minister Obuchi reciprocated with a visit to Mongolia in July 1999. Japan has provided more than $120 million in grants and loans since 1991 and coordinated international assistance to Mongolia. Diplomatic relations were established with South Korea in 1991, and during the Mongolian President's visit, seven agreements and treaties were signed, providing the legal basis for further expanding bilateral relations. Japan is Mongolia's largest bilateral aid donor. In 2001 President Bagabandi made state visits to India and Nepal.


Russia

After the disintegration of the former Soviet Union, Mongolia developed relations with the NIS. Links with Russia and other republics were essential to contribute to stabilization of the Mongolian economy. The primary difficulties in developing fruitful coordination occurred because the NIS were experiencing the same political and economic restructuring as Mongolia. Despite these difficulties, Mongolia and Russia successfully negotiated both a 1991 Joint Declaration of Cooperation and a bilateral trade agreement. This was followed by a 1993 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation establishing a new basis of equality in the relationship. Mongolian President Bagabandi visited Moscow in 1999, and Russian President Vladimir Putin visited Mongolia in 2000 in order to sign the 25-point Ulaanbaatar Declaration, reaffirming Mongol-Russian friendship and cooperation on numerous economic and political issues. Russia claims that Mongolia owes it $10 billion for assistance rendered during the Soviet period. To date, this dispute has not been resolved.


Europe

Mongolia seeks closer relations with countries in Europe and hopes to receive most-favored-nation status from the European Union (EU). During 1991, Mongolia signed investment promotion and protection agreements with Germany and France and an economic cooperation agreement with the United Kingdom. Germany continued former east German cooperative programs and also provided loans and aid. The Prime Minister has traveled to Germany, France, Belgium, and EU headquarters in Brussels seeking economic cooperation. President Bagabandi visited several European capitals in 1999-2000.




U.S.-MONGOLIAN RELATIONS

The U.S. Government recognized Mongolia in January 1987 and established its first embassy in Ulaanbaatar in June 1988. It formally opened in September 1988. The first U.S. ambassador to Mongolia, Richard L. Williams, was not resident there; Joseph E. Lake, the first resident ambassador, arrived in July 1990. Secretary of State James A. Baker, III, visited Mongolia in August 1990, and again in July 1991. Mongolia accredited its first ambassador to the United States in March 1989. More recently, Secretary of State Madeline Albright visited Mongolia in May 1998, and Prime Minister Enkhbayar visited Washington in November 2001.


The United States has sought to assist Mongolia's movement toward democracy and market-oriented reform and to expand relations with Mongolia primarily in the cultural and economic fields. The United States granted Mongolia most-favored-nation status and has supported Mongolia's transition to political democracy and a market economy. In 1989 and 1990, a cultural accord, Peace Corps accord, consular convention, and Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) agreement were signed. A trade agreement was signed in January 1991 and a bilateral investment treaty in 1994. Mongolia was granted permanent NTR status and GSP eligibility in June 1999.

The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) has provided more than $100 million over the past 7 years in technical assistance and training for Mongolia's democratic and economic reform program. Of that total, some $38 million has gone for emergency energy assistance, which has been instrumental in keeping Mongolia's power and heating system operable through the country's harsh winters. By FY 2000, rural development replaced energy as USAID's main program emphasis. Nearly half of USAID's annual program—$10.8 million in FY 1999 and $12 million in FY 2000—is devoted to the Gobi Regional Economic Growth Initiative and the farmer-to-farmer program of ACDI/VOCA.


The U.S. also is directly supporting Mongolia's democratization by working with U.S. nongovernmental organizations to provide training for parliamentary committee organization and constituent service and has recently launched a program to establish public affairs organizations and legislative relations offices in every ministry. U.S. assistance also provided technical assistance for the drafting of the 1992 constitution, nonpartisan voter education guides, and an election-observer mission for the July 2000 elections.


The United States provides support for the Mongolian Government's economic reforms through its Economic Policy Support Project that includes a full-time American policy adviser in the prime minister's office. The adviser has worked closely with the Government of Mongolia to set the policy agenda of the current government and provides policy advice and expert technical assistance for the government's major reform initiatives, including privatization, energy, pension, and banking reforms.

The Peace Corps currently has more than 80 volunteers in Mongolia. They are engaged primarily in English teaching and teacher training activities. At the request of the Government of Mongolia, the Peace Corps has developed programs in the areas of public health and the environment.


Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

Ulaanbaatar (E), Micro Region 11, Big Ring Road, C.P.O. 1021, Ulaanbaatar 13, Mongolia (international address) • PSC 461, Box 300, FPO AP 96521-0002 (U.S. address), Tel [976] (11) 329095, Fax 320776; AID Fax 310440; PAO Fax 312380; PC Fax 311520. E-mail: [email protected]. Website: www.us-mongolia.com

AMB:Pamela J.H. Slutz
AMB OMS:Jane Y. Lopez
DCM:Mark T. Tokola
POL:Rex-Marc Patterson
CON:Mark T. Hill
ECO:Michael J. Layne
PAO:Scott D. Weinhold
MO:J. Denver Herren
FMS:David H. Bodycoat
GSO:Paul Salarano
IRM:Leo R. Parpart
IMS:Andy L. Jaeger
CLO:Cholpon D. Lord
RSO:Chris Lord
AID/DIR:Jonathan S. Addleton
AID/PROG.MAN:Jeffrey W. Goodson
PC/CD:Helen Lowman
PC/APCD:Nancy A. Nix
PC/PTO:Jane A. Zimmerman
PCMO:Paul E. Wilson
DAO/DATT:Lt.Col. Mark W. Gillette
DAO/OPSCO:MSgt. Jeffrey X. Roberts


Last Modified: Thursday, October 30, 2003


TRAVEL


Consular Information Sheet
January 14, 2003


Country Description: Mongolia is a vast country of mountains, lakes, deserts and grasslands. It peacefully abandoned its communist system in 1990 and has successfully made the transition to a parliamentary democracy. Economic reforms continue. The country's development has been hampered by inadequate infrastructure, particularly in the energy, transportation, and communication sectors. Travelers to Mongolia should beaware that shortcomings in these areas might have an impact on travel plans.


Entry and Exit Requirements: A valid passport is required for American visitors. No visa is required for Americans visiting for fewer than 90 days. Visitors planning to stay in Mongolia for more than 30 days are required to register with the Immigration, Naturalization and Foreign Citizens Agency in Ulaanbaatar during their first week of arrival. American visitors who fail to register and stay longer than 30 days may be stopped at departure, denied exit, and fined. Americans planning to work or study in Mongolia should apply for a visa at a Mongolian Embassy or Consulate overseas. Failure to do so may result in authorities denying registration, levying a fine, and requiring that the visitor leave the country. For current information visas and registration requirements travelers should contact the Embassy of Mongolia at 2833 M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007, telephone: (202) 333-7117 or http://www.mongolianembassy.mn


Travelers arriving or departing Mongolia through China or Russia should be aware of Chinese and Russian visa regulations. American citizens are not permitted to transit through China or Russia without a visa. For more information on China, see the Consular Information Sheet for China. For more information on Russia, see the Consular Information Sheet for Russia. Travelers planning travel to Russia should get visas prior to arriving in Mongolia. They are difficult to obtain in Mongolia.

In an effort to prevent international child abduction, many governments have initiated procedures at entry/exit points. These often include requiring documentary evidence of relationship and permission for the child's travel from the parent(s) or legal guardian if not present. Having such documentation on hand, even if not required, may facilitate entry/departure.


Safety and Security: There have been no acts of terrorism, kidnappings or incidents with organized crime or extremist groups in Mongolia. There are no regions of instability in the country. U.S. citizens are advised to avoid occasional protests and street demonstrations in Ulaanbaatar as the demonstrations may become unruly.


Crime: Over the past few years there has been a significant rise in crime in Mongolia, particularly in Ulaanbaatar, the capital. Violent crime is increasing, and it is not advisable to walk alone through the city after dark. The most common crimes against foreigners are pickpocketing and bag snatching. Travelers should be especially cautious when taking public transportation and in crowded public areas, such as open air markets, the State Department Store, the Central Post Office, and Gandan Monastery. U.S. citizens who detect pickpocketing attempts should not confront the thieves, as they may become violent.


The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the U.S. Embassy. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, to contact family members or friends and to explain how funds could be transferred.

Although the investigation and prosecution of a crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you understand the local criminal justice process and find an attorney, if needed. U.S. citizens may refer to the Department of State's pamphlet, A Safe Trip Abroad, for ways to promote a trouble-free journey. The pamphlet is available by mail from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402, via the Internet at http://www.gpoaccess.gov/index.html, or via the Bureau of Consular Affairs home page at http://travel.state.gov.


Medical Facilities: Medical facilities in Mongolia are limited, and some western medicines are unavailable. Infectious diseases, such as plague and meningococcal meningitis, are present at various times of the year. Serious medical problems requiring hospitalization and/or medical evacuation to the United States can cost thousands of dollars or more. Doctors and hospitals often expect immediate payment for health services. For more information, please contact the U.S. Embassy in Ulaanbaatar or the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's international travelers hotline (see below).


Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and if it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation. U.S. medical insurance plans seldom cover health costs incurred outside the United States, unless supplemental coverage is purchased. Further, U.S. Medicare and Medicaid programs do not provide payment for medical services outside the United States. However, many travel agents and private companies offer insurance plans that will cover health care expenses incurred overseas, including emergency services such as medical evacuations.

When making a decision regarding health insurance, Americans should consider that many foreign doctors and hospitals require payment in cash prior to providing service and that a medical evacuation to the U.S. may cost well in excess of $50,000. Uninsured travelers who require medical care overseas often face extreme difficulties. When consulting with your insurer prior to your trip, please ascertain whether payment will be made to the overseas healthcare provider or if you will be reimbursed later for expenses you incur. Some insurance policies also include coverage for psychiatric treatment and for disposition of remains in the event of death. Useful information on medical emergencies abroad, including overseas insurance programs, is provided in the Department of State's, Bureau of Consular Affairs brochure Medical Information for Americans Traveling Abroad, available via the Bureau of Consular Affairs home page at http://travel.state.gov or autofax service at 1-202-647-3000.


Other Health Information: Sanitation in some restaurants is inadequate. Stomach illnesses are frequent. Bottled water and other routine precautions are advisable. Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747); fax 1-888-CDC-FAXX, (1-888-232-3299), or via the CDC's Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel/. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad, consult the World Health Organization's website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.


Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Mongolia is provided for general reference only and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance:

Safety of Public Transportation: Poor
Urban Road Conditions/Maintenance: Poor
Rural Road Conditions/Maintenance: Poor
Availability of Roadside Assistance: Poor


Driving in the capital city of Ulaanbaatar can be extremely difficult due to poorly maintained streets, malfunctioning traffic lights, inadequate street lighting, undisciplined pedestrians, and a shortage of traffic signs. There has been a dramatic increase in the number of vehicles on the roads in recent years, but the knowledge and skills of the driving population has not kept pace with the growth of automobiles. There are many metered taxis in Ulaanbaatar. There are no car rental companies operating in Mongolia, but it is possible to hire a car and driver from tourist companies. Public transportation within the capital is extensive, cheap, and generally reliable, but it is also extremely crowded (see information on crime above). There are few paved roads outside of the capital, and driving can be hazardous, particularly after dark. For additional general information about road safety, including links to foreign government sites, see the Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs home page at http://travel.state.gov/road_safety.html. For specific information concerning Mongolian driver's permits, vehicle inspection, road tax and mandatory insurance, contact the Embassy of Mongolia at 2833 M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007, telephone: (202) 333-7117.


Aviation Safety Oversight: As there is no direct commercial air service at present, or economic authority to operate such service, between the U.S. and Mongolia, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Mongolia's Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with international aviation safety standards for oversight of Mongolia's air carrier operations. For further information, travelers may contact the Department of Transportation within the U.S. at 1-800-322-7873, or visit the FAA's Internet website at http://www.faa.gov/avr/iasa/.

The U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) separately assesses some foreign air carriers for suitability as official providers of air services. For information regarding the DOD policy on specific carriers, travelers may contact DOD at 1-618-229-4801.


Mongolia has upgraded its aviation facilities and communications and air traffic control capabilities. However, the American Embassy has reported some general safety and reliability concerns regarding domestic flights operated by the national airline MIAT. The Embassy does not prohibit its employees from flying on MIAT, but does encourage them to exercise prudence and good judgment when boarding domestic flights. If Embassy employees see potential hazards, such as missing safety belts or passenger overcrowding, they are advised to get off the plane and wait for another flight.


Customs Regulations: Mongolian customs authorities enforce strict regulations concerning import and export of items such as firearms, ammunition and antiquities. Import of firearms or ammunition requires prior approval from the Government of Mongolia. Export of antiquities requires a special customs clearance certificate issued by authorized antique shops at the time of purchase. For additional information contact the Embassy of Mongolia at 2833 M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20402, tel: (202) 333-7117.


Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, an American citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Mongolian law, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested, or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Mongolia are strict, and convicted offenders can expect jail sentences and heavy fines.


Special Circumstances: Traveler's checks denominated in dollars are accepted at some hotels and may be converted to dollars or Tugriks at several banks. Credit cards can be used at a variety of hotels, restaurants, and shops in Ulaanbaatar. Outside of the capital, travelers should have cash. Cash advances against credit cards are available at commercial banks such as Trade and Development Bank and Golomt Bank. International bank wire transfers are also possible. There is a handful of ATM machines in Ulaanbaatar, but none outside the capital.


Consular Access: American citizens are encouraged to carry a copy of their passports with them at all times, so that, if questioned by local officials, proof of identity and citizenship are readily available.

Disaster Preparedness - Winter Power Shortages: Severe fuel shortages and problems with central heating and electrical systems may cause seriously reduced heating levels and power outages in Ulaanbaatar and other cities during the winter. Smaller towns in the country side may have no heat or electricity at all. The Embassy advises all American residents in Mongolia to be prepared to depart if there is a complete energy failure. General information about natural disaster preparedness is available via the Internet from the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) at http://www.fema.gov/.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, please refer to the Department of State Internet site at http://www.travel.state.gov/children's_issues.html or telephone 1-888-407-4747.


Registration/Embassy Location: Americans living in or visiting Mongolia are encouraged to register with the Consular Section of the American Embassy in Mongolia and obtain updated information on travel and security within Mongolia. The Embassy is located in Micro Region 11, Big Ring Road, Ulaanbaatar. The telephone number is (976)-11-329-095, and the Embassy website is http://www.us-mongolia.com/.

Mongolia

views updated May 08 2018

MONGOLIA

Mongol Uls

COUNTRY OVERVIEW

LOCATION AND SIZE.

Formerly known as Outer Mongolia, the Republic of Mongolia is a landlocked country located between the Russian Federation and the People's Republic of China. The country has an area of 1,565,000 square kilometers (604,246 square miles), slightly smaller than the state of Alaska. Mongolia's capital city, Ulaanbaatar, is located in the northeast of the country, 200 kilometers (124 miles) from the Russian border.

POPULATION.

The population of Mongolia was estimated at 2,650,952 in July 2000. It has almost doubled since the 1960s, due to improved health and medical facilities, and longer life expectancy. In 2000 the birth rate stood at 21.53 per 1,000 while the death rate stood at 6.14 per 1,000. The estimated annual population growth rate is 1.54 percent; if the current trend remains unchanged, the population is expected to double once more within the next 25-30 years.

With ethnic Mongols making up almost 90 percent of the population, Mongolia is ethnically homogenous (uniform). Kazakhs make up 4 percent, and other ethnic groups, including Chinese and Russians, round out the total. The Mongolian population is young, with 34 percent below the age of 15 and just 4 percent older than 65. Urbanization started only in the 1960s, but by the late 1990s almost 58 percent of Mongolians lived in urban areas. Ulaanbaatar and its suburbs are home to 773,700 people, or nearly one-third of the country's total.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the Mongolians were under threat of extinction due to the absence of medical services, high infant mortality, diseases and epidemics, and natural disasters. After independence in 1921, the government in this sparsely populated country began promoting population growth. This policy reversed the decline and stimulated a rapid increase in the population during the second half of the 20th century. However, population density remains one of the lowest in the world, with about 1.6 people per square kilometer (3.9 people per square mile). The country's low population can be explained in part by its geographic and climatic extremes: Mongolia is home to soaring mountains and burning deserts, including the Gobi Desert in the southern third of the country; because of the country's high average altitude, winters are long and temperatures extreme.

OVERVIEW OF ECONOMY

Mining, agriculture, and the processing of agricultural products are the 3 main sectors of the Mongolian economy. For centuries, the Mongolians have been engaged in animal husbandry, raising horses, sheep, goats, cattle, and camels. Since the vast prairie land could support millions of cattle and sheep, but not sustain crop cultivation, the Mongolians often bought wheat, barley, and oats from their neighbors, and crop production was of secondary importance for them. Animal husbandry and hunting provided other important sources of livelihood and products for trade, such as marmot and squirrels found in the rich forests of northern Mongolia.

The Mongolians long had close relations with neighboring China, which historically was one of its biggest trading partners. However, relations between Mongolians and Chinese were often interrupted by devastating wars and military conflicts and, gradually, the Chinese Empire established political control over Mongolia. These wars damaged Mongolian economic and social development. Consequently, Mongolia entered the 20th century as an underdeveloped, feudal country.

Most of the major economic and social changes in the 20th century came as a result of communist revolutions in neighboring countries. The Chinese Revolution of 1911 and the Russian Revolution of 1917, which were directed against imperial regimes and promised social justice, had profound effects on the Mongolian elite. In 1921, with Soviet assistance, Mongolia established an independent provisional government and declared independence from China. In 1924 the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party came to power, remaining in control for the next 70 years. It introduced radical political and economic changes, state control, and central state planning, modeled on the Soviet political and economic systems. With Soviet assistance, the Mongolian government introduced large-scale farming centered around state-controlled collective farms. It also established light industry and mining operations. As in most socialist countries, almost all economic activities in Mongolia were state-controlled, and private entrepreneurial initiatives were limited. Until the 1990s, the Soviet Union and its eastern European territories remained Mongolia's main trading partners, the main market for its products, and the main source of foreign aid. According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Mongolian economy grew at an average annual rate of 6.0 percent between 1979 and 1989, which was one of the highest growth rates in communist countries.

Major changes came in the late 1980s with the introduction of democratization and market-oriented reforms. These changes were largely peaceful since they were started by the ruling class under the influence of the neighboring Soviet Union and China. In early 1990s, the Mongolian government formulated its program of radical economic change (the so-called "shock therapy" approach) with the assistance of international organizations such as the World Bank and the IMF. This program was based on 3 main strategies: rapid privatization , rapid price liberalization , and currency reform. According to the IMF, Mongolia's economy declined at an average annual rate of 0.1 percent between 1989 and 1999.

The modern Mongolian economy largely relies on the export of raw materials to international markets. The country's main exports are copper concentrate (which accounted for almost 47 percent of its total export earnings in 1998), cashmere (the country produces almost 30 percent of the world's cashmere), and textile and meat products. Mongolia depends heavily on imports of machinery, fuels, industrial and consumer goods , and food products. Because of the transitional recession and disappearance of aid from the former USSR, Mongolia's economy increasingly relies on foreign aid and credits. Total external debt has reached almost US$738.8 million (1998), quite a large figure for a nation of only 2.6 million people.

POLITICS, GOVERNMENT, AND TAXATION

Since achieving independence from China in 1921, Mongolia has made consistent attempts to expand political participation beyond tribal and religious identities and affiliations. An attempt was made to build a Soviet-type political regime based on political parties, a parliamentary system, and Communist ideology. The Mongolian People's Party was founded in 1921, and renamed the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) in 1924. Until 1990, Mongolia preserved a one-party political system in which the MPRP remained the main political force.

Influenced by the late 1980s reforms of USSR leader Mikhail Gorbachev, the Mongolian Constitution was amended in 1990, and the first multiparty election for the Great Hural (Parliament) took place that same year. The MPRP was challenged by the newly formed Mongolian National Democratic Party (MNDP), the Mongolian Socialist Democratic Party (MSDP), and several others. The MPRP gained almost 80 percent of the seats in the new Parliament and formed a government led by President Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat. Despite their overwhelming victory, the former Communists showed a great sense of tolerance toward the opposition and promoted genuine reforms in liberalizing the political and economic system, introducing a new constitution (1992) and a new unicameral (one house) Parliament. However, the MPRP had a serious setback when President Ochirbat broke with his party; in 1993 he won the first direct presidential elections as an opposition candidate. In 1996, the Democratic Coalition, led by the MNDP and the MSDP, defeated the MPRP, taking 49 of the 76 seats in Parliament. The Democratic Coalition advocated a greater opening up of the economy and full privatization. In the 1997 presidential election, President Orchibat, the Democratic Coalition candidate, lost to MPRP candidate Natsagiin Bagabandi, who came to power calling for greater social assistance and more balanced reforms. The MPRP further strengthened its position in the July 2000 Parliamentary election, taking 72 seats. This latest Mongolian transition was largely peaceful, and its military does not play any active role in its politics.

Throughout the 1990s, the government promoted market-oriented reforms, abandoning the centrally planned economy and focusing on privatization, price liberalization, and a new monetary system. However, the state's sudden withdrawal of subsidies led to a steep transitional recession affecting almost all sectors of the economy, especially construction and industries. The weakness of the legal system and the inability of state institutions to implement property rights and contract law undermined confidence among local and foreign investors.

INFRASTRUCTURE, POWER, AND COMMUNICATIONS

During the Cold War (1945-89), Mongolia's transportation infrastructure enjoyed a relatively high level of investment to insure its military usefulness. Afterwards,

Communications
CountryNewspapersRadiosTV Sets aCable subscribers aMobile Phones aFax Machines aPersonal Computers aInternet Hosts bInternet Users b
199619971998199819981998199819991999
Mongolia271516310.812.75.40.046
United States2152,146847244.325678.4458.61,508.7774,100
ChinaN/A33327240.0191.68.90.508,900
KazakhstanN/A384231N/A20.1N/A1.4270
aData are from International Telecommunication Union, World Telecommunication Development Report 1999 and are per 1,000 people.
bData are from the Internet Software Consortium (http://www.isc.org) and are per 10,000 people.
SOURCE: World Bank. World Development Indicators 2000.

investments in transportation infrastructure diminished considerably, and the quality of the roads is declining. The country is served by the 1,928 kilometer (1,198 mile) Trans-Mongolian railway, which connects it with both Beijing and Moscow. Mongolia also has 49,250 kilometers (30,603 miles) of unevenly distributed highways, of which only 1,674 kilometers (1,040 miles) are paved, mainly in the northern part of the country. In the south and southwest, horses and camels are still important modes of transportation. An international airport connects Ulaanbaatar with Beijing, Moscow, and other destinations, and there are 34 smaller airports, only 7 of which have paved runways.

Electrical power is supplied by the Central Electricity System (CES), which produces around 2.66 billion kilowatt hours (1998) of power. Five coal-fired power stations provide almost 85 percent of the total, with the balance imported from Russia. During the 1990s, attempts were made to renovate the CES with international aid and to build small hydroelectric and wind-powered stations. Power interruptions are common, and some remote areas remain without electricity, where diesel oil, wood, and dried horse and camel dung is used as fuel.

Telecommunication services in Mongolia have been under reconstruction since the early 1990s. In 1997, there were 93,800 telephone lines, 2,000 mobile-phone subscribers, and 13,000 personal computers. Internet access was established in 1996.

ECONOMIC SECTORS

In 1999, Mongolia derived its GDP from 3 principal sectors: agriculture, fishing, and hunting (33 percent), industry (24 percent), and services (43 percent). Historically, livestock breeding and agriculture have been the cornerstones of the national economy. With Soviet assistance, Mongolia established an industrial sector based mainly on mining and the processing of agricultural products. Mongolian economic development is limited by its landlocked isolation, harsh continental climate, and small population. Significant economic potential lies in its unexploited natural resources including copper, molybdenum, tin, tungsten, and gold. Domestic reserves of coal can satisfy growing energy consumption, and the discovery of oil reserves in 1994 raises the possibility that Mongolia might eventually become a petroleum-exporting country.

During the 1990s, Mongolia experienced a deep recession with the disappearance of Soviet economic assistance and the disintegration of the Soviet-backed Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), which had been a major market for Mongolian exports. The country increasingly relies on the export of raw materials to the international market, and it is extremely vulnerable to fluctuations in world prices for its major export products, copper and cashmere. Mongolia needs large foreign direct investments and international assistance to modernize existing technologies and to begin major economic changes. In the 1990s, the Mongolian government undertook a series of free-market oriented economic reforms focusing on privatization, internal and external trade liberalization, and promotion of private entrepreneurs. In 1997, because of its rapid and extended economic liberalization, Mongolia became one of the first of the former socialist countries to be accepted into the World Trade Organization (WTO), opening up Western markets for Mongolian goods.

AGRICULTURE

The agricultural sector, which employs about half of Mongolia's population, underwent major deregulation during the 1990s. In September 1991, the negdels (state-controlled collective farms) were privatized and reformed into smaller units. A combination of mismanagement and harsh weather led to higher meat prices and a depression in the agricultural processing industries. Since 1991 many herders, having no experience outside their negdels, have struggled to adapt themselves to the new economic realities. Both animal herding and crop cultivation are extremely vulnerable to the region's harsh weather and climate changes, which include occasional drought. In 1996, forest and prairie fires caused damage estimated at $1.4 billion and seriously damaged the region's environment. In the winter of 1999-2000, approximately 2.4 million animals died as a result of extremely cold and icy weather, bringing poverty and hunger to many Mongolian farmers.

ANIMAL HERDING.

Animal herding is the most important sector of Mongolian agriculture, providing almost two-thirds of agricultural production. It provides a source of income, food, and a mode of transportation for a significant part of the population as well as being an important part of Mongolia's exports. Mongols still migrate around vast prairies, raising horses, sheep, goats, cattle, and camels. By the second half of the 1990s, the livestock population had reached a record high of 31.2 million, almost 90 percent of which was privately owned. With the liberalization of international trade, many herders turned to raising goats to produce valuable cashmere, and the number of goats almost doubled to 11 million between 1992 and 1998. In 1998 Mongolia produced 502.1 tons of cashmere, but fluctuations in the world price of this commodity have hurt profits. Overgrazing of pasture land, especially by goats, could potentially cause environmental degradation in the fragile prairie ecosystem, and there are limited resources available to reverse the trend.

CROP CULTIVATION.

In 1998 Mongolia produced 194,900 tons of cereals (down from 330,700 tons in 1994), 65.2 tons of potatoes, and 45.7 tons of vegetables. Crop cultivation is limited, due to the harsh continental climate (the growing season is just more than 100 days long) and a shortage of arable (cultivatable) land, though this sector plays an important role in sustaining self-sufficiency in foodstuffs. After the privatization of the large state-controlled farms in the 1990s, crop production fell sharply, a decline blamed on a lack of management skills, funds, and technologies, and on an ill-considered and ill-implemented privatization program. Other sectors of Mongolian agriculture include forestry, fishery, and fur production, all relatively minor.

INDUSTRY

Industrialization was introduced into Mongolia in the 1970s, with large investments from the Soviet Union, especially for mining and the processing of agricultural products. Through the 1970s and 1980s, the Mongolian government implemented an industrialization program that emphasized increasing investments and diversifying the country's exports. In the 1990s, because of prevailing conditions in the international market and the collapse of the traditional Soviet market, Mongolian industry underwent considerable restructuring. By 2001, Mongolia increasingly relied on export of its mineral resources, although there have been considerable efforts made to revive its manufacturing sector.

MINING.

Copper, gold, molybdenum and fluorspar concentrates are the major natural resources of export significance in Mongolia. In 1998 Mongolia exported 485,000 tons of copper concentrate, valued at $124 million; around 12.5 tons of gold, valued at $117.2 million; and 4,131 tons of molybdenum concentrate, valued at $12.1 million. Export of these mineral resources provided around 60 percent of total export earnings in 1998. Mongolian coal reserves are estimated at approximately 100 billion tons, but the country extracts coal mainly for domestic consumption, at a level of around 5.1 million tons per year.

Mining is a relatively new sector in the Mongolian economy. Although the country is rich in various natural resources, until the 1970s they were under-exploited. Major mining plants were built in the 1970s with Soviet assistance. The biggest, Erdenet and Darhan, are situated in the north of the country, close to the Russian border. In the 1990s, the Mongolian government struggled to attract international investors into the mining sector. Mongolia still largely relies on Russian technology in this sector of the economy, although Russian involvement began to diminish during the 1990s as multinational corporations started to move into the mining sector.

In the mid-1990s, oil reserves were discovered, estimated at around 5 billion barrels, that could be used both for domestic consumption and for export to China. Extraction of oil from Tamsag basin began in 1997 and completion of an oil refinery is expected in Nalaikh, near Ulaanbaatar, in 2002. International investment is needed to develop its oil reserves at full scale.

MANUFACTURING.

Mongolia's manufacturing sector accounted for 24 percent of GDP in 1998, employing 12.4 percent of the labor force in the production of agricultural products, garments, leather goods, and carpets. During the era of state-controlled industry (1924-91), these goods were produced mainly in small and medium-sized, state-owned enterprises for export to the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. Russia was also the main market for Mongolia's food processing industry, which produced sausages and canned meat.

The manufacturing industry was one of the fastest growing sectors of the economy in the 1970s and 1980s, but because of excessive state control, it was relatively inefficient and made low quality products. In the 1990s, the government introduced a privatization program aimed at stimulating private initiative and increasing productivity, but the sector could not compete internationally because of a lack of management skills, lack of investments, and inefficient technologies. A steep recession, which threatened thousands of jobs and provoked social protests, followed. Between 1994 and 1998, production of leather footwear declined from 407,000 pairs to 33,000, leather coats from 35,000 to zero, sheepskin coats from 57,000 to 1,000, and woolen fabrics from 77,000 square meters to 5,000 square meters.

SERVICES

Between 1924 and 1991, Mongolia's services sector was heavily state-controlled and was significantly underdeveloped. Since the early 1990s, the Mongolian government has made considerable efforts to deregulate this sector, with special attention focused on reforming the financial services industry. The monopoly of the state bank was broken and commercial banks were allowed to compete. This sector was restructured with assistance from the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). In 2000 there were 12 banks, 6 state-owned and 6 privately owned.

Tourism is an underdeveloped sector of the economy, limited by lack of accommodation facilities and transportation infrastructure. Thanks to the combination of Mongolia's landscape and its position on the old Silk Road (the trade route connecting China with Western Europe in medieval times), adventure tourism offers a high growth potential. Mongolia welcomed about 160,000 tourists in 1999, and the government passed a law establishing the National Tourism Development Program: 2000-2015 in order to boost this sector.

The retail sector is quite underdeveloped by Western standards, consisting mainly of small shops and restaurants. With the growth in tourism since the 1990s, the quality of the retail sector and diversity of services have been improving.

INTERNATIONAL TRADE

Mongolian international trade has fluctuated considerably during last 3 decades. After the collapse of both the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) and trade with the former Soviet Union, Mongolian international trade experienced a dramatic decline that continued until the mid-1990s. Since then, Mongolian trade has started a slow recovery, boosted by growing exports of gold and other mineral resources. Mongolia joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1997.

During the 1990s Mongolia managed to diversify its markets, and China became one of its fastest-growing trade partners. In 1998 exports to China amounted to 30.1 percent of total Mongolian exports, followed by Switzerland (21.5 percent), Russia (12.1 percent), South Korea

Trade (expressed in billions of US$): Mongolia
ExportsImports
1975N/AN/A
1980.403.548
1985.6891.096
1990.661.924
1995.473.415
1998N/AN/A
SOURCE: International Monetary Fund. International Financial Statistics Yearbook 1999.
Exchange rates: Mongolia
tughriks per US$1
Dec 20001,097.00
20001,076.67
19991,072.37
1998840.83
1997789.99
1996548.40
SOURCE: CIA World Factbook 2001 [ONLINE].

(9.7 percent) and the United States (8.1 percent). In that year, Russia remained the primary source of imports (30.6 percent), followed by China (13.3 percent), Japan (11.7 percent), South Korea (7.5 percent), and the United States (6.9 percent.) In 1998 Mongolia exported a total of $316.8 million in goods and imported $472.4 million in goods.

MONEY

During the era of state control (1924-91), the Mongolian tughrik had a fixed rate (4 to the U.S. dollar in 1989), and was not freely convertible. With the introduction of convertibility in the early 1990s, there was a sudden surge in hard currency demand and the tughrik depreciated (dropped in value) sharply (MT448.61 to the U.S. dollar in 1995 and MT1,072.37 to the U.S. dollar in 1999). The Mongolian government has tried to stabilize its currency and its economy by relying heavily on international assistance from the World Bank and the IMF. The annual rate of inflation , which soared to around 300 percent in 1993, was reduced to 15 percent in 2000. The Bank of Mongolia, the nation's central bank, seeks to maintain a tight monetary policy in order to stabilize the value of the currency and reduce inflation.

POVERTY AND WEALTH

Reforms during the 1990s brought mixed results to the Mongolian people. While they removed state control over the economy, allowed private businesses, and diversified

GDP per Capita (US$)
Country19751980198519901998
MongoliaN/AN/A479498408
United States19,36421,52923,20025,36329,683
China138168261349727
KazakhstanN/AN/AN/A2,0731,281
SOURCE: United Nations. Human Development Report 2000; Trends in human development and per capita income.
Distribution of Income or Consumption by Percentage Share: Mongolia
Lowest 10%2.9
Lowest 20%7.3
Second 20%12.2
Third 20%16.6
Fourth 20%23.0
Highest 20%40.9
Highest 10%24.5
Survey year: 1995
Note: This information refers to expenditure shares by percentiles of the population and is ranked by per capita expenditure.
SOURCE: 2000 World Development Indicators [CD-ROM].

international trade, they also brought widespread poverty, a diminishing social-welfare system , especially in health care and education, a rise in organized crime, and huge gaps in personal income.

In 1999, per capita GDP was estimated at US$2,320. According to the United Nations Development Program's Human Development Report, a statistical survey of the standard of living of the world's nations, Mongolia was ranked 110th, just behind China and Egypt, but just ahead of El Salvador and Bolivia. This is largely because of the strong education and health systems built during the single party (1924-1991) era, which remain strong despite declines in the 1990s. In 2000, the enrollment rate at primary and secondary schools stood at 84 percent, and most people had access to health care services. The government plans to increase spending in these areas, however, to return them to the levels the country enjoyed before 1991.

WORKING CONDITIONS

Since the abandonment of state guarantees of employment in 1993, the unemployment rate among Mongolia's workforce of 1.256 million has been rising, reaching an official rate of 4.5 percent in 1998. In 1998, there were 49,800 workers registered as unemployed, but some estimates put the figure as high as 200,000, especially in remote small towns and villages. Working conditions remain far from ideal because of low wages and harsh economic conditions. Until the 1990s, the trade-union movement was state-controlled; with the introduction of market-oriented reforms Mongolia's trade unions have struggled to gain membership, though they still maintain close affiliations with political parties.

COUNTRY HISTORY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

1921. Mongolia declares independence from China.

1924. Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) comes to power, remaining the ruling party for the next 70 years.

1946. China formally recognizes Mongolia's independence.

1961. Mongolia joins the United Nations.

1987. Mongolia normalizes its relations with China and signs a treaty concerning the resolution of border disputes.

1990. Mongolian Constitution is amended, and the first multiparty election for Parliament takes place.

1992. New constitution is adopted by the Great Hural (Parliament).

1993. Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat is elected president in the first direct presidential election.

1993. Mongolian tughrik is made freely convertible.

1996. For the first time in modern Mongolian electoral history, the MPRP is defeated by a Democratic Coalition led by the MNDP and the MSDP.

1997. Mongolia joins the World Trade Organization.

2000. MPRP returns to power, taking 72 seats in parliamentary elections.

Household Consumption in PPP Terms
CountryAll foodClothing and footwearFuel and power aHealth care bEducation bTransport & CommunicationsOther
Mongolia561498141-2
United States139946851
ChinaN/AN/AN/AN/AN/AN/AN/A
Kazakhstan37102096612
Data represent percentage of consumption in PPP terms.
aExcludes energy used for transport.
bIncludes government and private expenditures.
SOURCE: World Bank. World Development Indicators 2000.

FUTURE TRENDS

By 2001, Mongolia was able to achieve macroeconomic (large-scale, overall) stability, although at the very high cost of growing poverty and inequality. It will likely take another decade before the country achieves full recovery from its transition from state control to private control of the economy. Mongolia's future is uncertain because of its geographical isolation, difficulties in attracting foreign investors, growing debt, and increasing dependence on international humanitarian assistance. Global climate changes may threaten the very existence of agriculture and animal husbandry in Mongolia. However, Mongolia should be able to depend on its strengths in exporting raw materials, and it has potential oil fields that could also contribute to export earningsif oil field development receives the necessary investments. Moreover, private enterprise has proved surprisingly strong, outperforming state-controlled industries in head-to-head competition. As more private businesses gain experience and financial strength, the Mongolian economy should become more diversified and stable.

DEPENDENCIES

Mongolia has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Akiner, Shirin, editor. Mongolia Today. London: Routledge,1991.

Economist Intelligence Unit. Country Report: Mongolia, November 2000. London: Economist Intelligence Unit, 2000.

Fletcher, Sanjay, Catriona Purfield, and Sergei Dodzin. Mongolia. Statistical Annex. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, January 2000.

Human Development Report Mongolia 2000: Reorienting the State. Ulaanbaatar: UNDP and Government of Mongolia, 2000.

Mongolia: Toward a Market Economy. Washington, D.C.: WorldBank, December 1992.

The Mongol Messenger. <http://www.mongolnet.mn/mglmsg>.Accessed February 2001.

Nixon, F.I., B. Walters, B. Suvd, and P. Luvsandori, editors. The Mongolian Economy: A Manual of Applied Economics of an Economy in Transition. Aldershot, UK: Edward Elgar, 2000.

UB-Post. <http://www.ulaanbaatar.net/ubpost>. AccessedFebruary 2001.

United Nations in Mongolia. <http://www.un-mongolia.mn>.Accessed February 2001.

U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook, 2000. <http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook>. Accessed June 2001.

Rafis Abazov

CAPITAL:

Ulaanbaatar (formerly spelled Ulan Bator).

MONETARY UNIT:

Mongolian tughrik (togrog) (MT), equal to 100 mongos. There are coins of 1, 5, 10, and 50 mongos. Paper money comes in notes of 1, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500, 1,000, 5,000, and 10,000 tughriks.

CHIEF EXPORTS:

Copper, gold, non-ferrous metals and animal products, including cashmere, wool, livestock.

CHIEF IMPORTS:

Machinery and equipment, chemicals, industrial consumer goods, fuel and food products, including sugar and tea.

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT:

US$6.1 billion (1999 est.).

BALANCE OF TRADE:

Exports: US$454.3 million (1999 est.). Imports: US$510.7 million (1999 est.).

Mongolia

views updated Jun 08 2018

MONGOLIA

Major City:
Ulaanbaatar

Other Cities:
Choybalsan, Darhan, Erdenet, Hovd, Shbaatar

EDITOR'S NOTE

This chapter was adapted from the Department of State Post Report dated June 1994. Supplemental material has been added to increase coverage of minor cities, facts have been updated, and some material has been condensed. Readers are encouraged to visit the Department of State's web site at http://travel.state.gov/ for the most recent information available on travel to this country.

INTRODUCTION

Genghis Khan's warriors galloped out of Mongolia's fertile grasslands and windswept desserts to sack both Peking and Moscow. But the far-flung empire they built crumbled, and Manchu overlords tamed the once ruthless horsemen by fostering Buddhist Lamaism. Half of Mongolia's males were monks when a Russian-aided revolution overthrew Chinese rule in 1921.

Today only two monasteries remain in operation. Other changes profoundly alter the nation's ways. Growing industry calls former herdsmen to new skills ranging from flour milling to movie making. In the developing nation, Russia and China vie for influence. But most Mongols still wander north of the sandy Gobi with their herds of sheep, cattle, camels, and goats. They sleep in felt-covered tents, drink fermented mare's milk, and hold 30-mile cross-country horse races.

MAJOR CITY

Ulaanbaatar

Ulaanbaatar, the capital of Mongolia, is located in north-central Mongolia, some 420 miles (675 kilometers) from the Chinese border at Erlian (by train), and 180 miles (290 km) from the Russian border at Ulan Ude. Its altitude and continental location make Ulaanbaatar the world's coldest capital city.

Ulaanbaatar ("Red Hero") has been so named since the Socialist revolution in 1921. It was formerly called Urga and Ikh Huroo ("Big Circle") when it was the center of the government of its last non-Communist ruler, the living Buddha Bogda Khan. Of the many monasteries extant in 1920, only one remained open during the Communist period.

The present city of some 666,000 inhabitants is typified by wide streets, large, concrete government structures, movie theaters, cultural facilities, and apartment buildings. The focal point of Ulaanbaatar is Sukhbaatar Square, which is surrounded by Government House, art shops, the new stock exchange, the central Post Office, and two cultural halls, as well as Ulaanbaatar's main thoroughfare, Enkh Taivan Gudumj (Peace Avenue). The Hotel Ulaanbaatar and the Ministry of Foreign Relations are close by. Sukhbaatar Square is dominated by a statue of this Socialist Revolutionary hero, who is buried in a tomb modeled on Lenin's Tomb in Moscow's Red Square. It is a popular place for wedding photos, and easily accommodates 100,000 people.

To the north and south lies the Bogda Khan mountain range, which is trisected in Ulaanbaatar by the Tuul and Selbe Rivers. Train travelers from Russia will pass through the valleys of the Selenge, which ends in Lake Baikhal, and Orhon Rivers, passing through rolling steppe country, covered by wild flowers in the early summer, and larch trees in the valleys and hollows. Those traveling on to China by train will soon enter the Gobi Desert, a predominantly flat steppe of scrubby grassland and roving sheep and camel herds.

An average of 236 days of the year are sunnyblue skies and sunshine make even the coldest temperatures seem pleasant.

Utilities

Severe fuel shortages and problems with central heating and electrical systems may cause seriously reduced heating levels and power outages in Ulaanbaatar and the cities of Darham and Erdenet during the winter months of November through April. Smaller towns in the countryside may have no heat or electricity at all during these months.

Food

Food supplies, such as imported canned goods, eggs, and meat can be purchased in local dollar stores on an irregular basis but are expensive. Local supplies of other food stuffs are limited.

Shipped foodstuffs available have included oranges, apples, bananas, grapes, potatoes, sweet potatoes, eggplant, cabbage, carrots, tomatoes, onions, garlic, green beans, bell peppers, cucumbers, and watermelon.

Meat is available at the butcher shop at the Bayangol Hotel in downtown Ulaanbaatar.

Clothing

Because temperatures in Mongolia range from summertime highs of 90°F to wintertime lows of-30°F to-40°F, a wide range of clothing is necessary. Winter clothing needs are especially critical in order to avoid hypothermia. Every family member needs a warm coat, a warm hat, heavy gloves or mittens, a scarf, and boots. Fur coats, leather hats, cashmere sweaters and gloves, camel hair sweaters, cashmere scarves, and sheepskin lined boots are sometimes available in Ulaanbaatar. Quality varies. Summer rains warrant boots, umbrella, and a waterproof coat. Heavy snow is uncommon in the city, but for trips to the countryside, arctic boots, moon boots, or "pacs" are highly desirable. Thermal underwear, sweaters, a down vest, down booties, wool socks, silk underwear, and wool socks should be brought. If traveling to Ulaanbaatar in the late summer, include some of these items in your airfreight.

A heavy wool topcoat or dress parka for winter and a lighter topcoat for spring and fall are desirable. Warm gloves, boots, and sweaters are essential. Some buildings are uncomfortably warm in winter, while others are barely warm. During unheated months, cold temperatures may still be a problem. Sweaters, vests, and lightweight long underwear that can be worn under daytime wear are all useful.

Plan on wearing the same clothing you would in Washington, D.C. Good shoes and nylons under skirts, dresses, and suits are common. Although Mongolians tend to be formal dressers, a certain relaxation in styles is occurring in Ulaanbaatar. Slacks are increasingly common. Wool clothing for the winter, and cotton clothing for the summer are worn. A warm, fairly dressy overcoat (down or fur) and wool overcoat are sufficient for nonsummer seasons. Washable woolens and silks are recommended.

Bring clothing for outdoor activities, warm boots, thermal socks, warm gloves or mittens, and thermal underwear. For summer, bring sportswear and a bathing suit.

Bring warm, washable, sturdy play-clothes. Zippered snowsuits, arctic boots, mittens, waterproof mitten covers, face masks, thermal underwear, warm socks, underwear, scarves, hats, rain boots, tennis shoes, warm slippers, sweaters, and waterproof pants are recommended. Bring warm pajamas and a robe. Summer clothing should include jeans, shorts, and extra sneakers. Babies also need winter clothing. It is difficult to purchase quality clothing for children in Ulaanbaatar.

Supplies and Services

Since nearly everything is unavailable in Ulaanbaatar, you should plan on bringing all products you normally use, such as toiletries, cosmetics, prescription drugs and medicines, paper products, and household and kitchen cleaning supplies. Bring a large supply of hand/face lotion, sunscreen, and lip balm. Detergent, dish soap, and bar soap made in China are usually available in dollar shops, but may not be acceptable by U.S. standards. Bring a large supply of items that can be given as gifts, as there are a great number of adult birthday exchanges, and gifts are freely exchanged at New Year's.

Local dry-cleaning facilities are inadequate for valuable items. Drycleaning may be taken to Beijing.

Men and women use the local hair-dressers and barbers. Patrons provide their own hair care products.

The two operating hotels and the Cultural Palace have public restaurants. Privately owned restaurants are also in business. A restaurant offers cultural programs of folk singing, dancing, and music on a monthly schedule. Two of the restaurants will cater events both on and off their premises.

Religious Activities

There are a number of Buddhist monasteries, and informal Christian services are held weekly.

Education

Several foreign schools are now operating in Ulaanbaatar. A new International School opened in September 1992 with grades kindergarten through grade 3. The school plans to add a grade each year.

Sports

No sports facilities are available for unlimited use by post personnel. There are three tennis courts operated by the Mongolian Government, but they have not been used, except by special invitation. The Sports Hall has a Universal Machine and the Lenin/St. Petersburg Club has weights. Several pools are available in Ulaanbaatar.

Members of the international community sometimes organize hikes, fishing trips, and picnics on an ad hoc basis.

Horseback riding is possible for members of the Mongol Horse Society (membership fee is approximately $10 a year). Some American students attending the university in Ulaanbaatar have joined a swimming club at an indoor pool.

Touring and Outdoor Activities

During the warmer months (May to October), tours may be taken to other parts of Mongolia. These trips are usually arranged through Zhuulchin, the Mongolian tourist bureau. A trip to the Gobi costs about $200 round trip for transportation and about $180 for a night's stay in a ger. Each ger will accommodate 1 to 3 people. A trip to the tourist camp outside Ulaanbaatar, Terelj, costs $100 for the hotel per person. By special request, Zhuulchin will attempt to make the 160 km round trip to Terelj and back in 1 day.

Ulaanbaatar offers a variety of museums and sites that may be visited. These include the Gandan monastery, Bogda Khan palace, the winter residence of Mongolia's last khan, the Central Museum with its dusty but outstanding collections of dinosaur bones, and the Fine Arts Museum, in which exquisite panel embroideries are on display.

Weekends are nice for trips to the country, where you can walk, climb rocks, birdwatch, fish (a license is necessary), picnic, and enjoy the fresh air. With proper clothing, outdoor activities can be enjoyed all year. The country has nearly limitless areas for camping. In summer months, it is wise to wear long pants to avoid flea bites. Fleas that infest the Mongolian marmot are known to carry bubonic plague.

Excellent cross country skiing and sledding are possible about 20 km from Ulaanbaatar. Because of the dryness and extreme cold, there is not much snowfall in the vicinity of the capital. Fishing, kayaking, and boating (small rubber boats only) may be done on the Tuul River near Ulaanbaatar.

Big game hunting is available in Mongolia, but it must be arranged through Zhuulchin Tours and is expensive.

Photographers find the extraordinary light and exquisite scenery make Mongolia an excellent place to enjoy their hobby. Color film is available locally, but is quite expensive.

Entertainment

Excellent ballet, opera, and symphonic programs are presented in Ulaanbaatar, both by local companies and by visiting performers. The folk song and dance troupe performs three times a week. The Mongolian Circus has a permanent venue where visiting circuses may be seen. Tickets are inexpensive and easy to obtain. One of the local restaurants offers cultural programs on a monthly schedule.

Movie theaters show films dubbed in Mongolian. TV programming has been in Mongolian and Russian; some English programming may also be available, as USIA has installed a World Net link at the TV station.

Social Activities

Social life is generally casual, with most informal entertaining done at home. Picnics and holiday activities are popular.

An International Club, established in 1991, occasionally sponsors activities. Visitors to Ulaanbaatar are able to attend functions on a temporary basis. An International Women's Club was established in May 1992. It meets the first Tuesday of each month.

Special Information

While tugriks are used for some transactions, hard currency may be used in most shops and in the Sunday market. Hard currency may be hard to come by, however, so travelers should bring cash and coins to Post. American Express or Barclays' Travelers Checks can be cashed at the Central Bank. Although banks, restaurants, and hotels will accept travelers checks and sometimes Diners Club and Amex credit cards, you will not be able to obtain a cash advance against a credit card. Currency can be exchanged by cashing travelers checks at the bank or at the dollar shops using the "parallel exchange rate." U.S. dollars may be transferred to a personal account at the Central Bank of Mongolia through its associated bank, American Express Bank, or through Chase Manhattan Bank in New York.

OTHER CITIES

Located approximately 390 miles (625 km) east of Ulan Bator, CHOYBALSAN is one of Mongolia's major industrial cities. Choybalsan, known as Sainbeisn Hree until 1923, was once an important religious center. The city also benefited greatly from its location on Mongolia's main trading route with Manchuria, Siberia, and China and quickly became a major trading center. The town was renamed Bayan Tmen in 1923 and given its present name in the early 1940s in honor of revolutionary war hero, Horloyn Choybalsan. The city has roughly 39,000 residents. Today, Choybalsan is eastern Mongolia's leading industrial center, producing about 50% of the region's gross industrial output. The city has a diverse industrial base that includes a flour mill, a meat-packing plant, and a wool-scouring mill. Other factories in the city produce foodstuffs, building materials, and carpets. A coal mine near Choybalsan produces nearly 600,000 tons of coal a year. Most of this is consumed by the city's large electric power plant. Choybalsan is easily accessible by a major east-west highway which links the city with Ulan Bator and the western city of Hovd. An eastern branch of the Ulan Bator Railway links Choybalsan with Borzya, Russia.

The city of DARHAN (also spelled Darkhan), located 136 miles (219 km) northwest of Ulan Bator, is Mongolia's second largest city. Darhan is situated in a valley near the Hor Gol River and is nearly surrounded by mountains. The average mean temperature in Darhan is approximately 28°F (-2°C). In 2000, Darhan had a population of 90,000. Darhan is a relatively new city, financed and constructed in 1961 by the former Soviet Union and several Eastern European nations. The city quickly became a major industrial center specializing in the production of construction materials such as reinforced concrete, bricks, synthetic fibers, and wood and steel products. Other factories in Darhan produce consumer goods, carpets, foodstuffs, clothing, sheepskin, and textiles. The city's industries remain productive due to the ample reserves of coal, marble, limestone, sand, and clay located near Darhan. A huge power plant, fueled by coal from the Sharin coal mine, provides energy for the city's industries. In addition to industry, Darhan is the site of an important science institute. This institute, the Research Institute of Plant Growing and Land Cultivation, is dedicated to the improvement of agricultural production and farming techniques in northern regions of Mongolia. Cultural entertainment in the city is provided by the Darhan Music and Drama Theater.

ERDENET , with an estimated population of 58,200 (2000) is located in a mountain valley 230 miles (371 km) northwest of Ulan Bator. The city was founded in 1976 following the construction of a huge copper-molybdenum processing plant. This plant, funded by both the former Soviet Union and Mongolia, is the largest of its kind in Asia and produces 90% of Mongolia's total mining output. In addition to copper and molybdenum processing, several factories manufacture carpets, foodstuffs, and processed timber. Erdenet is connected via railway with Ulan Bator and is also accessible by air and a paved highway.

With a population of roughly 27,900 (1999 est.), HOVD is the major economic center of western Mongolia. The city is located on the Buyant River and is nearly surrounded by the Mongolian Altai Mountains. The origins of the city date back to the early 1800s when Hovd served as a strategic outpost for Mongolia's Manchu rulers. Merchants, eager to trade with the Manchu, soon arrived in the city. Over a span of one hundred years, Hovd developed into a thriving trading center for agricultural products, butter, and wool. These products are still actively traded today. During the twentieth century, several factories were built in Hovd. These industries include a woodworking factory, a food processing plant, and a wool-scouring mill. An agricultural college is located in Hovd and, in the past, the school has hosted international geological expeditions. One of Hovd's major attractions is the Local History Museum, which provides exhibits illustrating the ethnic groups and natural resources of Mongolia's western region.

The small city of SHBAATAR (also spelled Schbaatar or Skhbaatar), located near Mongolia's northern border with Russia, is 160 miles (258 km) north-northwest of Ulan Bator. Named for revolutionary war hero, Damdiny Sukhbaatar, Shbaatar is home to several small industries. These industries produce distilled beverages, matches, flour, and building materials. The Ulan Bator Railway connects Shbaatar with Ulan Bator and Naushki, Russia. In 1999, Shbaatar had 22,900 residents. A more recent population figure is unavailable.

COUNTRY PROFILE

Geography and Climate

Mongolia, a large, sparsely populated country located between China and Russia, has an area of just over 600,000 square milesslightly smaller than the combined area of Texas, Arizona, New Mexico, and Louisiana. The capital, Ulaanbaatar, is over 4,000 feet above sea level. Because of the elevation and distance from any ocean or sea, Mongolia has a continental climate. Marked seasonal, even daily, changes in temperature, numerous high pressure systems, and severe cold occur during much of the year.

The country is divided into three basic zones: the Gobi, a vast, dry grassland in the east and south; the low Hangai mountains of the north; and the high Altai mountains of the west and northwest. Mongolia's largest lake is in Hovsgol Aimag, in the Altai, where elevations range up to 15,000 feet. There are three major river systems: the Tuul, which runs through Ulaanbaatar; the Orhon, into which the Tuul flows and which, in turn, flows into Lake Baikhal; and the Selenge, in the northeast.

Population

One-fourth or more of Mongolia's roughly 2.7 million people live in the capital citymany in "ger tent settlements" around the outskirts of Ulaanbaatar. Other cities are Erdenet, the site of a large copper mine, and Darhan. Both cities are north of Ulaanbaatar and served by the rail line that runs from Beijing to Moscow through Mongolia.

About 33% of the population is under the age of 15. The literacy rate is high, but unemployment has become a problem, particularly for young men.

Most Mongolians living in Mongolia belong to the Khalka Mongol ethnic group. A number of smaller, Mongol ethnic groups reside in scattered areas of Mongolia. About 3 million other Mongols, primarily of the Chahar ethnic group, reside in the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region of China. Buryat Mongols live in north Mongolia and in the Buryat Autonomous Region of Russia, east of Lake Baikhal. Another Mongol ethnic group resides in the Kalmyk Autonomous Republic of Russia. Kazaks make up about 6% of the population and live mainly in the far west.

Public Institutions

Mongolia has 18 "aimags" (provinces) and three autonomous cities (Ulaanbaatar, Erdenet, and Darhan).

A new constitution, signed in February 1992, provided for a reorganization of the local government structure.

The primary legislative body, the State Great Hural, was elected in June 1992. A unicameral body, it has 76 members elected by secret ballot of the citizens for 4-year terms. The Hural will enact, amend, and supervise the implementation of laws; determine fiscal policies; set dates for elections of the Hural and the President; appoint the Prime Minister and other officials; and engage in other activities.

The President, subject to direct election for a maximum of two 4-year terms, is the head of State. He has veto power over legislation; he can propose, in consultation with the majority party or parties, names for Prime Minister; he can propose dissolution of the government, or instruct the government and issue decrees, which must be signed by the Prime Minister; he represents Mongolia in foreign relations, may enter into treaties subject to ratification by the Hural; he may propose legislation; and he serves as commander-in-chief and heads the National Security Council.

The State Great Hural appoints the Prime Minister who heads the government. If the Prime Minister resigns, the government is dissolved.

Independent judges are nominated by a General Council and confirmed by the President, and, in the case of Supreme Court judges, the State Great Hural. There are specialized courts for criminal, civil, and administrative matters, which are not subject to Supreme Court review. The Supreme Court does have power to act as court of first instance for certain criminal and other actions, examine lower court decisions by appeal, examine questions transferred to it by the Constitutional Court or Prosecutor General, provide official interpretations of all laws, except the Constitution, and make judgments on other matters assigned by law. Trials are open, in the Mongolian language, and with right to counsel.

The Constitutional Court's members are appointed by the State Great Hural for 6-year terms. The nine members are nominated by the Hural (3), the President (3), and the Supreme Court (3). The Court interprets the Constitution, acting upon the request of the President, Prime Minister, Hural, Supreme Court, Prosecutor General, or on its own motion. In addition to reviewing the conformity of treaties and legislative acts with the Constitution, the Court may invalidate any that are not in conformity with the Constitution. It may also examine breaches of law by the President, Prime Minister or other Minister, the Prosecutor General, and members of the State Great Hural or Supreme Court.

Aimags each have local legislative hurals in 4-year terms. Each aimag enjoys some rights of self-government. Governors for aimags and Ulaanbaatar City will be appointed by the Prime Minister, and will, in turn, appoint governors of the "soums" (subunits of the aimags, roughly equivalent to counties), and various districts of Ulaanbaatar. Local hurals will legislate local issues.

The new constitution was the outgrowth of earlier events. In the first half of 1990, Mongolian citizens held mass demonstrations in the capital, demanding an end to 70 years of Communist rule and the Socialist system. The government acquiesced, and the first free elections were held in July 1990. Although the Communist Mongolian Peoples' Revolutionary Party (MPRP) won the majority of seats in the national legislature, the reform movement gathered strength. Together with the MPRP, it formed a unity government, which undertook political and economic reforms, culminating in the new constitution described above. In February 1992 to symbolize the changes, the star at the top of the Mongolian flag was removed, and the state seal was changed to a modernist flying horse design.

Mongolia now claims 13 political parties, including the Mongolian Democratic Party, the Social Democrats, the Party of National Progress, the Free Labor Party, and the Green Party, as well as the MPRP.

Arts, Science, and Education

Eight years of education are compulsory, although dropout rates have recently increased. The literacy rate is about 97%.

In addition to the schools operated by the state, private schools are now permitted. In 1991, seven graduate institutes, one trade school, and one technical school began holding classes.

Commerce and Industry

Formerly, most supplies for Mongolian industry were obtained from the various republics of the former U.S.S.R. and members of COME-CON. Following the cataclysmic changes in the U.S.S.R. and Mongolia, the quantity and diversity of many supplies, particularly explosives, petroleum and petroleum products, wheat and other foodstuffs, have been insufficient.

Mongolia's own industries include production of cashmere, skins and leathers, furs and animal hair, coal, copper and minerals, and other raw materials.

Natural resources include coal, copper, molybdenum, iron, phosphates, tin, nickel, zinc, wolfram, fluorspar, gold, and uranium. Joint ventures with Western companies in oil exploration and gold mining are under negotiation.

The growing season for this high, dry, northern country is quite short, but wheat, oats, barley, fodder, and some vegetables are grown. The principal industry, however, is livestock production, in which about 45% of the population is engaged.

One major problem Mongolia faces in expanding trade ties with foreign countries is the shortage of bulk transport facilities. One railroad line traverses the country, having a broad Russian gauge track, which necessitates the substitution of wheels at the Chinese border. This rail route allows for shipments to Tianjin, China, in one direction, and to Moscow or Vladivostok in the other. Both Russian and Chinese rail lines are subject to lengthy delays in shipment. International air routes are via Beijing and Moscow, but the amount of freight that may be forwarded by this method is limited by space and high shipment costs.

Mongolia is actively seeking trading partners in the West and receives aid through a group of donor countries known as the Mongolian Assistance Group. A stock exchange recently opened in Ulaanbaatar, and privatization of publicly held companies and the establishment of private businesses should improve Mongolia's prospects for earnings over the middle term.

Transportation

Local

Ulaanbaatar and its environs are served by buses and trolleys. Prices are low, but the buses are generally very crowded and pickpockets are a problem.

Driving in the capital city of Ulaanbaatar can be extremely difficult due to poorly maintained streets, malfunctioning traffic lights, inadequate street lighting, and a shortage of traffic signs. There has been a dramatic increase in the number of vehicles on the road in recent years, but the knowledge and skills of the driving population has not kept pace with the influx of automobiles. There are few taxis in town and there is no regulation of the industry. Most people simply wave down a vehicle and negotiate a price with the driver. There are no car rental companies currently operating in Mongolia, but it is sometimes possible to hire a car and driver. A small donation (US$1-US$2) to the driver is expected.

There are few paved roads outside of the capital and driving can be hazardous, particularly after dark.

Regional

Transportation to other cities is by train for communities that abut the tracks, or by air and long-distance bus. Occasionally, you can rent automobiles.

Road conditions in Mongolia vary greatly. One major highway is predominantly paved, but the narrow road has no lane markings. Other roads are dirt. In most rural locations, there are no roads, but tracks across country. Rain makes many routes impassable.

Communications

Telephone and Telegraph

Telephone service in Ulaanbaatar is fair. Busy lines and crossed lines are common, and phones may ring when no one is calling. A call may be made to any location within Ulaanbaatar at no charge. An account must be established to book calls outside of Ulaanbaatar.

Phones for international calls are available at the Central Post Office and at the Ulaanbaatar Hotel. Delays of 2-12 hours are common in completing international phone calls. Improved international service occurred in late 1993. The country code for Mongolia is 976 and the city code for Ulaanbaatar is 1. Direct dial to the U.S. is available from some phones, but is still difficult.

Radio and TV

BBC, VOA, and Radio Moscow programming are somewhat available, although reception can be affected by weather and sunspot activity. Local programming is in Mongolian and Russian, but some English-language programming is offered occasionally. Mongolian TV programming is SECAM.

Newspapers, Magazines, and Technical Journals

An English-language newsletter, the Mongol Messenger, is published weekly. It has news of ongoing events, cultural opportunities, and interviews with Mongolian officials. No international English-language newspapers and periodicals are currently available locally.

Health and Medicine

Medical Facilities

Local hospital facilities may be used for a fee, but often the most basic medicines, equipment, and supplies are unavailable, and sanitation standards do not meet U.S. specifications. The U.S. Embassy recommends that health problems be treated outside Mongoliaeither in Beijing or Hong Kong.

Community Health

No unusual health problems or hazards exist. Tap-water may be rusty and is boiled and filtered for drinking and cooking, but dishes may be washed without ill effect. In warm months, flies and mosquitoes are a nuisance. Avoid flea bites in the summer by wearing long pants and socks in the country (fleas may carry plague germs). The German Embassy maintains a list of blood donors from the international official community.

Preventive Measures

Rabies, hepatitis B, gamma globulin, typhoid, tetanus, and Japanese B encephalitis immunizations are recommended. Boil water for 10 minutes and filter before drinking or cooking.

NOTES FOR TRAVELERS

Passage, Customs & Duties

Most Americans visiting Ulaanbaatar travel through China and on to Ulaanbaatar by train or airplane. It is possible, but not recommended, to travel via Moscow. A short stay in Beijing is recommended, to allow for a break, especially important for train travelers, who face another 40 or more hours in transit before arriving in Ulaanbaatar. Winter train travelers should carry warm clothes, a cup and spoon and instant soup mixes, and one or more good books to enjoy on the train. A "mini booklight" is also a good idea. Five flights are offered between Beijing and Ulaanbaatar each week by Mongolian Airlines (MIAT) and Air China (CAAC). Flight time is about 2 hours.

Bring warm clothing with you. Snowflakes have been seen in the air, even in July. Airfreight from the U.S. can take up to 4 months to arrive due to limited space on flights from Beijing.

A valid passport and entry/exit visa are required. While it is recommended that visitors obtain the appropriate entry/exit visa prior to travel, visas may be obtained at the international airport in Ulaanbaatar and at train stations on the Russian and Chinese borders. Two photographs and a US$50 processing fee are required. Visitors planning to stay in Mongolia for more than 30 days are required to register with the police at the Citizens' Information and Registration Center. Visitors who stay longer than the time permitted by their visa may be stopped at departure, denied exit, and fined. A departure tax must be paid at the airport on departure. For current information on visa issuance, fees, and registration requirements, travelers should contact the Embassy of Mongolia at 2833 M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007, telephone: (202) 333-7117 or http://www.MongoliaNet.com.

Travelers arriving or departing Mongolia through China should also be aware of Chinese visa regulations. American citizens are not permitted to transit through China without a visa. For more information, see the Consular Information Sheet for China or contact the Embassy of the People's Republic of China, 2300 Connecticut Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008, Tel: (202) 328-2500 or http://www.chinaembassy.org or the Chinese consulates general in Los Angeles, San Francisco, Chicago, New York City, and Houston.

U.S. citizens residing in or visiting Mongolia are encouraged to register with the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy, located in Micro Region 11, Big Ring Road, Ulaanbaatar, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Mongolia. The telephone number is (976)-1-329-095, and the Embassy web site is http://www.usmongolia.com.

Pets

No quarantine period is required for cats and dogs in Mongolia. Bring a health certificate and proof of vaccinations. If the pet weighs less than 16 pounds, including carrier, it may be brought into the passenger compartment on most flights. Pets are not accepted for baggage compartment travel on flights from Beijing to Ulaanbaatar. Arrangements must be made for the Beijing transit, since pets are not allowed in Chinese hotels.

Neither adequate veterinary service nor pet food is available in Ulaanbaatar. Bring all grooming aids and a supply of commonly used animal medicines. There is a Department of Health where a health certificate may be obtained upon departure for reentry into the U.S.

Be cautious about taking your dog into the countryside. Local fleas may carry bubonic plague.

Currency, Banking and Weights and Measures

The local currency is the Mongolian tugrik. There are two exchange rates, the "official" rate, used by diplomatic missions and foreign businesses, and the "parallel" rate, used by individuals. The parallel rate is more favorable. U.S. dollars are generally accepted in most hotels and restaurants in Ulaanbaatar and other major tourist locations, despite an existing law that requires all commercial transactions to be conducted in tugriks. Some places even refuse to accept tugriks. Travelers may find it useful to carry some cash in tugriks, and visitors to areas outside of Ulaanbaatar should certainly do so. Traveler's checks denominated in dollars are accepted at some hotels and may be converted to dollars or Tugriks at several banks. Credit cards can be used at a variety of hotels, restaurants, and shops, almost exclusively in Ulaanbaatar. Cash advances against credit cards are available at one commercial bank, and international bank wire transfers are also possible.

Banking services are available at the State Bank of Mongolia and at the Trade and Development Bank. Individuals may open foreign currency or tugrik accounts. Exchanges from tugriks to dollars may be limited by frequent shortages of hard currency.

Mongolia uses the metric system.

The U.S. Embassy is located in Micro Region 11, Big Ring Road, Ulaanbaatar. The telephone numbers is (976-1) 329-095. Americans who register at the U.S. Embassy may obtain updated information on travel, security, and health problems within the country.

LOCAL HOLIDAYS

Jan. 1 New Year's Day

Feb. Tsagaan Sar (Lunar New Year)*

Mar. 1 Women's Day

Mar. 18 Men's Day

Mar. 18 Soldiers' Day

June 1 Mother and Child Day

July 11-13 National Naadam Festival (Independence Days)

Nov. 26 Constitution Day/Proclamation Day

*variable

RECOMMENDED READING

These titles are provided as a general indication of the material published on this country. The Department of State does not endorse unofficial publications.

Akiner, Shirin, ed. Mongolia Today. New York: Routledge, Chapman & Hall, 1991.

Bawden, Charles R. The Modern History of Mongolia. 2nd ed. New York: Kegan Paul International, 1989.

Brill, Marlene T. Mongolia. Chicago, IL: Childrens Press, 1992.

Jagchid, Sechin and Paul Hyer. Mongolia's Culture and Society. Westview Press, 1979.

Major, John S. The Land and People of Mongolia, Lippincott, 1990.

Milne, Elizabeth, et al. Mongolian People's Republic, 1991: Toward a Market Economy. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund, 1991.

Morgan, David. The Mongols. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publications, 1987.

Moses, Larry N. The Political Role of Mongol Buddhism. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1977.

Moses, Larry, and Stephen A. Halkovic, Jr. Introduction to Mongolian History & Culture. Bloomington, IN: Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, 1985.

Phillips, E.D. The Mongols, London:Thames and Hudson, 1969.

Rahul, Ram. Mongolia: Between China & the U.S.S.R. Columbia, MO: South Asia Books, 1989.

Rossabi, Morris. Mongol Influence on World History.

Saunders, J.J. The History of the Mongol Conquest. London: Routledge, Paul Kegan, 1971.

Spuler, Bertold. History of the Mongols. New York: Dorset Press, 1989.

Mongolia

views updated May 23 2018

Mongolia

1 Location and Size

2 Topography

3 Climate

4 Plants and Animals

5 Environment

6 Population

7 Migration

8 Ethnic Groups

9 Languages

10 Religions

11 Transportation

12 History

13 Government

14 Political Parties

15 Judicial System

16 Armed Forces

17 Economy

18 Income

19 Industry

20 Labor

21 Agriculture

22 Domesticated Animals

23 Fishing

24 Forestry

25 Mining

26 Foreign Trade

27 Energy and Power

28 Social Development

29 Health

30 Housing

31 Education

32 Media

33 Tourism and Recreation

34 Famous Mongolians

35 Bibliography

Mongol Uls

CAPITAL: Ulaanbaatar

FLAG: The national flag, adopted in 1946, contains a blue vertical stripe between two red stripes; in gold, on the stripe nearest the hoist, is the soyombo, Mongolia’s independence emblem.

ANTHEM: Bügd Nayramdah mongol ard ulsyn töriin duulal (State Anthem of the Mongolian People’s Republic).

MONETARY UNIT: The tugrik (t) of 100 mongos. There are coins of 1, 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 50 mongos and notes of 1, 3, 5, 10, 20, 25, 50, and 100 tugriks. t1 = $0.00084 (or $1 = t1,187.17) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard.

HOLIDAYS: New Year’s Day, 1 January; Constitution Day, 13 January; Women’s Day, 8 March; Mother and Children’s Day, 1 June; Naadam Festival, 11–13 July; Mongolian Republic Day, 26 November. Movable holidays include Mongol New Year’s Day, in February or March.

TIME: 8 pm = noon GMT.

1 Location and Size

Located in east-central Asia, Mongolia has an area of 1,564,116 square kilometers (603,905 square miles), slightly smaller than the state of Alaska. The largest landlocked country in the world, Mongolia shares borders with Russia and China, with a total boundary length of 8,114 kilometers (5,042 miles). The capital city of Ulaanbaatar is located just northeast from the center of the country.

2 Topography

Mongolia is essentially a vast plateau with an average elevation of 914 to 1,524 meters (3,000 to 5,000 feet). Mongolia includes a mountainous section in the extreme west, where the peak of Nayramadlin Orgil (Huyten Orgil) of the Mongolian Altay Mountains rises to the highest point in the nation at 4,374 meters (14,350 feet). Other mountain ranges are the Hentiyn, along the Soviet border, and the Hangayn, in west-central Mongolia. The southern part of the country is occupied by the Gobi, a rocky desert with a thin veneer of shifting sand. Explorations have uncovered large reservoirs of water 2 to 3

GEOGRAPHICAL PROFILE

Geographic Features

Area: 1,564,116 sq km (603,905 sq mi)

Size ranking: 18 of 194

Highest elevation: 4,374 meters (14,350 feet) at Huyten Peak (Huyten Orgil)

Lowest elevation: 518 meters (1700 feet) at Hoh Nuur

Land Use*

Arable land: 1%

Permanent crops: 0%

Other: 99%

Weather**

Average annual precipitation: 13–38 centimeters (5–15 inches). Annual precipitation averages 25–38 centimeters (10–15 inches) in the mountains but less than 13 centimeters (5 inches) in the Gobi Desert.

Average temperature in January: (Ulaanbaatar): -32°c to 19°c (-26°f to -2°f)

Average temperature in July: (Ulaanbaatar): 11°c to 22°c (52°f to 72°f)

* Arable Land: Land used for temporary crops, like meadows for mowing or pasture, gardens, and greenhouses.

Permanent crops: Land cultivated with crops that occupy its use for long periods, such as cocoa, coffee, rubber, fruit and nut orchards, and vineyards.

Other: Any land not specified, including built-on areas, roads, and barren land.

** The measurements for precipitation and average temperatures were taken at weather stations closest to the country’s largest city.

Precipitation and average temperature can vary significantly within a country, due to factors such as latitude, altitude, coastal proximity, and wind patterns.

meters (7 to 10 feet) beneath the desert surface. The lowest point in the country is at the Hoh Nuur depression, which has an elevation of 518 meters (1,700 feet).

The longest river in the country is the Orhon, with a total length of 1,124 kilometers (698 miles). The largest lake, Uvs Lake, is located in the northwest and has an area of 3,366 square kilometers (1,300 square miles).

3 Climate

In winter, which is dry and virtually snowless, Mongolia averages temperatures of -32 to 19°c (-26 to -2°f). In summer, remnants of the south-easterly monsoon bring most of the year’s precipitation. Annual precipitation ranges from 25 to 38 centimeters (10 to 15 inches) in mountain areas to less than 13 centimeters (5 inches) in the Gobi.

4 Plants and Animals

Mongolia is divided into several natural regions, including forests, steppes, grasslands, and desert, each with its own type of plant and animal life. Larch and Siberian stone pine are trees of the northern forests, which are inhabited by bear, Manchurian red deer, snow panther, wild boar, and elk. The saiga antelope and the wild horse are typical steppe dwellers.

5 Environment

Environmental problems facing Mongolia include desertification, inadequate water supply, and air and water pollution. The presence of the Gobi Desert in the southeastern part of the country and mountains in the northwest provide natural limits to the amount of agricultural land.

Areas affected by deforestation and excessive grazing are eventually overtaken by the desert.

Water pollution is a particularly significant problem in Mongolia because the water supply is so limited. The country′s air pollution problems are due to increased industrial activity within the country, including the burning of soft coal. The heavy concentration of factories in Ulaanbaatar has polluted the environment in that area.

According to a 2006 report, threatened species included 13 types of mammals, 22 species of birds, and 1 species of fish. In 2003, about 11.5% of the total land area was protected.

The Przewalski′s horse, Bactrian camel, snow leopard, and saiga are among those mammals and birds which are considered endangered. The Mongolian wild horse has become extinct in the wild.

6 Population

In 2005 the population of Mongolia was estimated at 2.6 million. The projected population

for 2025 is 3.39 million. In 2005, the population of Ulaanbaatar, the principal city, was 812,000. Average population density is two people per square kilometer (5 per square mile).

7 Migration

Few Mongolians live outside the country. Since the independence of Kazakhstan, a former Soviet Republic, many Kazakhs have emigrated from Mongolia to Kazakhstan. Nomadic herders account for about half of Mongolia′s population. Mongolia is one of the only developing countries where people are moving to rural areas more than they are moving to cities. In 2000, the total number of migrants was 8,000, with virtually no refugees. In 2005, the estimated net migration rate was zero.

8 Ethnic Groups

According to the most recent estimates, about 85% of the population consisted of ethnic Mongols, of which the majority (90%) were Khalkha. Of the remainder, Kazakhs, Turvins, and Khotans accounted for about 7% of the population. Other groups included peoples of Russian and Chinese origin.

9 Languages

Khalkha Mongolian, the official language, is spoken by about 90% of the population. Early in the 13th century, the Mongols adopted an alphabet written in vertical columns and they have retained that script into modern times. A new alphabet was introduced in 1946 in all publications and in 1950 in all business transactions. In 1995, the parliament approved a program to preserve the traditional Mongolian script and introduced a plan to teach the script to students beginning in the third grade. In 2002 the script was recognized by the International Standardisation Organisation in Geneva, Switzerland. Zurkic, Russian, and Chinese are also spoken.

10 Religions

A 2004 report indicated that about 50% of the population practice some form of Buddhism, mostly Lamaist (or Tibetan) Buddhism. About 4% of the population are ethnic Kazakh Muslims. There are small Christian communities throughout the country and it is believed that some natives practice shamanism. About 40% of the population claimed no religious affiliation.

11 Transportation

The Trans-Mongolian Railway, about 1,496 kilometers (930 miles) in length, connects Mongolia with both China and Russia. The total length of railroads in 2004 was 1,810 kilometers (1,125 miles). Mongolia had about 49,256 kilometers (30,637 miles) of roadways in 2002, of which only 1,724 kilometers (1,068.8 miles) were paved.

Miat-Air Mongol is the principal airline. There were 46 airports in 2004, of which 14 in 2005 had paved runways. In 2003, about 295,300 passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international airline flights.

12 History

The land now known as Mongolia has been inhabited since the Lower Paleolithic period, more than 130,000 years ago. Mongolia first played an important part in world history in ad 1206, when the Mongol tribes united under the leadership of the conqueror Temujin, or Genghis Khan. They established a vast empire extending from the northern Siberian forest to Tibet, and from the Caspian Sea to the Pacific. The Mongols′ century of dominance in Asia allowed for great trade and cultural interchange, but it also led to the spread of the bubonic plague to Europe.

During the 14th century, the great Mongol states disintegrated and the Mongols retired to their original steppe homelands, splitting into three major groups: the northern Khalkha Mongols, the southern Chahar Mongols, and the western Oirat Mongols. Buddhism, which had been introduced by Tibetan monks in the 15th century, became widespread in the 16th and 17th centuries.

In the 17th and 18th centuries, the Mongols were brought under the rule of the Manchu dynasty in China. Following the overthrow of the Manchu dynasty by the Chinese revolution in 1911, Chinese and Russian forces vied for control of Outer Mongolia against Mongol nationalists seeking an autonomous state.

The People′s Republic The Mongolian People′s Republic (MPR), the second communist country in world history, was proclaimed on 26 November 1924. With the support of the former Soviet Union (which formed in 1922 and broke apart in 1991), communist rule was gradually consolidated. Lands of the feudal lords were confiscated, starting in 1929, and those of monasteries in 1938.

BIOGRAPHICAL PROFILE

Name: Miyeegombo Enkhbold

Position: Prime minister of a republic

Took Office: 25 January 2006

Birthdate: 1964

Children: Two children

Of interest: He previously served as mayor of Ulaanbaator.

On 14 February 1950, the People′s Republic of China and the Soviet Union signed a treaty that guaranteed the MPR′s independence. In October 1961, the MPR became a member of the United Nations. In June 1987, the MPR and the United States established diplomatic relations.

Economic and Political Transformation Following in the footsteps of the former Soviet Union, the MPR initiated its own policy of “openness” (il tod) in the late 1980s and began the transition from a centrally planned, collective economy toward a market economy. The ruling Mongolian People′s Revolutionary Party (MPRP) opted for political as well as economic reforms. The MPRP′s leadership resigned in March 1990 and in May the constitution was amended to allow for new, multiparty elections, which took place in July.

During 1991, the new government issued vouchers to all citizens for the purchase of state property, but economic reform was made more difficult by the economic collapse of the former Soviet Union. Elections in June 1992 created a new legislature, the State Great Hural (SGH), and in June 1993 President Punsalmaagiyn Ochirbat was elected in the first direct presidential elections. By September 1992, some 67,000 former Soviet troops (in the MPR since 1966) completed a process of withdrawal which began in 1990.

In the 1996 parliamentary elections, discontent among younger voters led to the defeat of the MPRP. The winners from the Democratic Union coalition were mostly political novices who promised to intensify market reforms. The election results marked the first smooth transfer of power in Mongolia′s modern history. In the 2000 elections, Nambar Enkhbayar became Mongolia′s twenty-first prime minister.

In 2001, Natsagiyn Bagabandi was reelected president with 58% of the vote, and the MPRP regained control of both the presidency and parliament.

In November 2002, the Dalai Lama visited Mongolia, a trip denounced by China. China warned Mongolian officials not to meet with the Tibetan spiritual leader and briefly suspended train services with the country. Thousands of Mongolian Buddhists attended the Dalai Lama′s speech on 6 November.

As of 2003, the country continued to face problems of high unemployment, poor welfare and education systems, corruption, crime, and harsh winters.

To counter the stagnant Mongolian economy, President Bagabandi opened bilateral talks with the United States and China in 2004, which in turn led to increased trade and cooperation. In addition, relations with Russia were reopened, which allowed Mongolia to completely pay-off its debt owed to Russia in 2004.

In May 2005, the MPRP candidate, Nambariin Enkhbayar was elected, garnering 53.4% of the vote. Enkhbayar declared that under his administration he would work to lower the nation′s poverty rate, which affected more than one-third of the population.

13 Government

The 1992 constitution went into effect on 12 February, replacing the 1960 constitution and completing Mongolia′s transition from a single-party state to a multiparty, parliamentary form of government. At that time, the country′s official name was changed from “Mongolian People′s Republic” to “Mongolia.” The legislature, the State Great Hural (SGH), has 76 members, who are elected by district to 4-year terms.

The president, or head of state, is selected by direct, popular vote for a four-year term. The prime minister, the head of government, is nominated by the president and confirmed by the SGH. The prime minister selects a cabinet, which must be confirmed by the SGH.

Mongolia consists of 21 provinces (aymag) divided into 334 counties (soums) and lesser administrative units called baghs, as well as 1 autonomous city, Ulaanbaatar, which is divided into districts and horoos. Each level of local administration has its own legislative body, or hural.

14 Political Parties

The Mongolian People′s Revolutionary Party (MPRP), the single ruling party between 1924 and 1996, legalized opposition parties in 1990. Other major parties include the Mongolian Social Democratic Party (MSDP), the Mongolian National Democratic Party (MNDP), and the United Party of Mongolia.

Prior to the elections of 2004, major political parties included the MPRP, the MNDP, the Green Party (NYAM), the Mongolian Democratic Party of Believers (MDPB), the Mongolian Conservative Party (MCP), the

Yearly Growth Rate

This economic indicator tells by what percent the economy has increased or decreased when compared with the previous year.

Note: 2003 data unavailable

Democratic power Coalition, which included the Mongolian Democratic Renaissance Party (MDRP), and the Bourgeois Party/Capitalist Party.

15 Judicial System

Prior to 1992, there was a supreme court elected by the State Great Hural; province and city courts, elected by the corresponding assemblies of people′s deputies; and lower courts. Under the 1992 constitution, the supreme court remains the highest judicial body. There is a constitutional court that has sole authority for constitutional review. The local people′s courts handle most civil and criminal cases. Provincial courts hear more serious cases and review local court decisions.

16 Armed Forces

In 2005, the armed forces totaled 8,600 active personnel. The army had 7,500 active members, while the air force consisted of 800 personnel. There were 137,000 reservists and paramilitary forces that consisted of a 6,000-member border guard, plus 1,200 internal security troops. Mongolia′s defense budget for 2005 totaled $17.6 million.

17 Economy

After seventy years as a centrally planned economy, Mongolia has undergone a diffi cult transition towards a free market system since 1990. A number of factors, including the sudden halt to economic aid from the former Soviet Union and allied countries, the disruption of trade with traditional trading partners, and a severe winter in 1990–91, caused a steep decline in the country′s economic activity. Despite this, development of oil and mineral resources remains a high priority.

Despite the changes that have taken place, animal husbandry remains a key sector of the Mongolian economy.

The growth rate for 2005 was 6.2%. However, inflation and unemployment remain problems. In 2004, inflation reached 8.7%, while the unemployment rate in 2003 was put at 14.2% although the actual rate maybe lower because a large portion of the jobless population maybe working in the so-called “gray economy.” In 2004, it was estimated that agriculture accounted for 21% of GDP, with industry accounting for 21%, and services 58%.

Components of the Economy

This pie chart shows how much of the country′s economy is devoted to agriculture (including forestry, hunting, and fishing), industry, or services.

18 Income

In 2005, the gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $5.242 billion, or about $1,900 per person. The annual growth rate for GDP for that same year was officially put at 6.2%. The average inflation rate for 2005 was estimated at 9.5%.

19 Industry

Small-scale processing of livestock and agricultural products has historically been the mainstay of Mongolia′s industrial sector. Metal processing first became important in the 1970s. In 1996, the leading industries included metals, accounting for 32.6% of industrial output; energy production, 19.1%; and processed foods, 15.8%. As of 2002, the production of food, leather, shoes, glass, and garments were on the decline, while production of copper and molybdenum concentrates, coal mining, and the food and beverage industries were increasing.

In 2004, industry accounted for 21% of the country′s gross domestic product (GDP), with 4% of the workforce engaged in mining and 6% in manufacturing. In 2002, industrial output grew by 4.1%.

20 Labor

In 2003, the labor force was estimated at 1.488 million people. Of that amount, in that same year, 42% were engaged in agriculture, while 4% were engaged in mining, 6% in manufacturing, 14% in trade, 29% in services, 5% in the public sector, and 3.7% in undefined occupations. In 2003, unemployment officially stood at 6.7%. In 2002, there were 400,000 unionized workers, amounting to less than 50% of the workforce.

Children as young as 14 or 15 may work with parental permission. In reality, regulations regarding child labor are not effectively enforced. The legal minimum wage was less than $25 per month in 2002, although most workers earned more than this amount.

21 Agriculture

Mongolia′s cultivated area represents only 1% of the potential cropland. As of 2003, crop-land amounted to 1.2 million hectares (2.965 million acres). Farming accounts for 3% of all employment. Principal crops produced in 2004 included 150,000 tons of wheat, 2,500 tons of barley, 67,000 tons of potatoes, and 44,000 tons of vegetables. Trade in agricultural products in 2004 consisted of $173.6 million in imports and $62.7 million in exports.

22 Domesticated Animals

Raising livestock is the backbone of Mongolia′s economy, employing about 160,000 people. Pastures constitute about 75% of the national territory. In 2005, the livestock population included around 11.68 million sheep, 12.2 million goats, 1.8 million head of cattle, 2 million horses, 257,000 camels, and 6,000 hogs. The meat produced in 2005 totaled about 195,400 tons.

Mongols claim that the Mongolian thor-oughbred is the original ancestor of many breeds of race horses worldwide. Its stamina and speed over long distances surpasses Arabic and Akhaltec racers.

Hunting remains an important commercial activity, with furs and skins the chief products. In 2005, production of skins and hides was estimated at 19,800 tons from sheepskins and 11,200 tons from cattle hides.

23 Fishing

Fishing is not a significant industry in Mongolia. The total catch in 2003 was 130 tons.

24 Forestry

Forests cover about 6.8% of Mongolia. Birch, cedar, larch, and fir trees predominate. In 2004, the timber cut was 6.631 million cubic meters (222.7 million cubic feet), with 29% burned as fuel. The lumber industry yielded 300,000 cubic meters (10 million cubic feet) of sawn wood that year.

25 Mining

Mongolia is one of the world′s largest producers of fluorspar, copper, and molybdenum. Geological surveys have uncovered deposits of some eighty minerals, which are largely untapped. Output in 2004 included 130,000 metric tons of mine copper, 295,000 metric tons of fluorspar, 25,000 metric tons of gypsum, and an estimated 40,000

Yearly Balance of Trade

The balance of trade is the difference between what a country sells to other countries (its exports) and what it buys (its imports). If a country imports more than it exports, it has a negative balance of trade (a trade deficit). If exports exceed imports there is a positive balance of trade (a trade surplus).

metric tons of mined tungsten. Gold output for 2004 was 18,600 kilograms (41,005 pounds).

26 Foreign Trade

Minerals, mainly copper and molybdenum were the leading exports. Wool, hides and skins, and manufactured garments also were exported. Imports included machinery and equipment, industrial consumer goods, chemicals, fuels, rice, wheat flour, building materials, sugar, and tea.

In 2004, exports were valued at $853 million, while imports were valued that same year at $1 billion. Principal trading partners in that same year were China, the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, Japan, and South Korea.

Selected Social Indicators

The statistics below are the most recent estimates available as of 2006. For comparison purposes, data for the United States and averages for low-income countries and high-income countries are also given. About 15% of the world′s 6.5 billion people live in high-income countries, while 37% live in low-income countries.

IndicatorMongoliaLow-income countriesHigh-income countriesUnited States
sources: World Bank. World Development Indicators. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 2006; Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 2006; World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C.
Per capita gross national income (GNI)*$2,040$2,258$31,009$39,820
Population growth rate1.3%2%0.8%1.2%
People per square kilometer of land2803032
Life expectancy in years: male62587675
female68608280
Number of physicians per 1,000 people2.60.43.72.3
Number of pupils per teacher (primary school)35431615
Literacy rate (15 years and older)97.8%65%>95%99%
Television sets per 1,000 people8184735938
Internet users per 1,000 people7628538630
Energy consumed per capita (kg of oil equivalent)n.a.5015,4107,843
CO2 emissions per capita (metric tons)3.270.8512.9719.92
* The GNI is the total of all goods and services produced by the residents of a country in a year. The per capita GNI is calculated by dividing a country′s
GNI by its population and adjusting for relative purchasing power.
n.a.: data not available >: greater than <: less than

27 Energy and Power

In 2004, electric power production in Mongolia amounted to an estimated 2.69 billion kilowatt hours, all of which is produced through the burning of fossil fuels. Mongolia produces only a small amount of oil, which in 2004 averaged 542 barrels per day. The country has no proven reserves of natural gas, but does have some coal. Shortages of gasoline are common in the countryside, due to declining deliveries from Russia. About half the population is served with electricity. Electric power outages in rural areas can last for months.

28 Social Development

The social insurance program provides for free medical services, benefits for temporary disability, and pensions for permanent disability and old age. Although women receive equal pay for equal work, they fill almost no positions at the highest levels of government or in the professions, although they do fill many mid-level professional and government jobs.

29 Health

Each province has at least two hospitals and each agricultural cooperative and state farm has a medical station. As of 2004, there were an estimated 267 physicians, 305 nurses, 18 dentists

and 31 pharmacists per 100,000 people. Most Mongolians had access to health services.

Pulmonary and bronchial infections, including tuberculosis, are widespread. However, an indigenous drink, ayrag, brewed from horse milk, seems to have healing qualities for these illnesses. Average life expectancy in 2005 was an estimated 64.52 years. About 25% of children under five years of age were malnourished. As of 2004, the number of people living with human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) was estimated at about 500.

The standard housing of the nomadic herders, as well as of many city dwellers, is the ger (yurt)—a light, movable, dome-shaped tent consisting of a skin or felt covering stretched over a lattice frame. Large apartment-house complexes with stores, services, and cultural facilities are being built in Ulaanbaatar, as well as in various other cities and towns. In 2002, about 49% of all households lived in gers. Approximately 57% of the nation′s population lived in Ulaanbaatar.

31 Education

Eight years of schooling is compulsory and free starting at age eight. However, many children in rural areas are withdrawn from school in order to work at home. More than 70% of students from rural areas reside in dormitories adjoining the schools. About 79% of primary-school-age children were enrolled in school in 2003, while about 77% of those eligible attended secondary school in that same year. The student-to-teacher ratio averaged 35 to 1 in 2003, with the ration for secondary school at around 22 to 1.

The Mongolian State University was founded in 1942. In 2003, about 37% of all age-eligible students were enrolled in some form of higher education program. Since the 1950s, the government has claimed that the entire adult population was literate. In 2004 the adult literacy rate was estimated at around 97.8%.

32 Media

In 2003, there were an estimated 56 mainline telephones, 130 mobile phones, and 77.3 personal computers for every 1,000 people. In 2004, there were five secure Internet servers in the country. In 2004, there were 7 AM and 62 FM radio stations. As of 1999 (the latest year for which data was available), there were four television stations. In 2003, there were an estimated 50 radios and 81 television sets for every 1,000 people.

Some of the newspapers of Mongolia include Unen (1999 circulation 170,000), Ardyn Erh (circulation 77,500), Novosti Mongoliy, Hodolmor, and Dzaluuchuudyn Unen.

33 Tourism and Recreation

In 2003, approximately 201,000 travelers visited Mongolia from abroad, with tourism receipts totaling $154 million. However, facilities are in short supply, and prices are high. Points of interest include the Gandan Lamasery in Ulaanbaatar and the ruined city of Karakorum, once the capital of the Mongol Empire. Mongolia offers abundant and varied scenery, including forests, steppes, lakes, and deserts, and a wide variety of wildlife. Traditional sports in Mongolia include wrestling, archery, and horse racing.

34 Famous Mongolians

A long line of Mongol khans (rulers) have left their mark on history. Temujin, or Genghis Khan (1162–1227), set up the first Mongol empire in 1206. Kublai Khan (1216–1294), a grandson of Genghis, conquered most of China. The founder of modern Mongolian literature is D. Natsagdorj (1906–1937). Tsendyn Damdinsuren (1908– 1986) is one of the most important writers. Leading playwrights are Ch. Oydov (1917–1963) and E. Oyuun (1918–2001). Other prominent writers are B. Rindhen (1905–1978), D. Namdag (1911–1982), U. Ulambayar (1911–), and Ch. Lodoydamba (1917–1970). B. Damdinsuren (1919–1992) and L. Murdorzh are noted composers. Jugderdemidiyn Gurragcha (1947–) became the first Mongolian in space in 1981, when he was carried into orbit aboard the former Soviet Union′s Soyuz 39 spacecraft.

35 Bibliography

BOOKS

Cheng, Pang Guek. Mongolia. New York: Marshall Cavendish, 1999.

Fisher, Frederick. Mongolia. Milwaukee, WI: Gareth Stevens Publishing, 1999.

Nordby, Judith. Mongolia. Santa Barbara, CA: Clio Press, 1993.

Sanders, Alan J. K. Historical Dictionary of Mongolia. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 1996.

Tull, Mary. Northern Asia. Austin, TX: Raintree Steck-Vaughn, 2000.

WEB SITES

Aquastat. www.fao.org/ag/Agl/AGLW/aquastat/countries/mongolia/index.stm. (accessed on January 15, 2007).

Country Pages. www.state.gov/p/eap/ci/mg/. (accessed on January 15, 2007).

Government Home Page. www.pmis.gov.mn. (accessed on January 15, 2007).

World Heritage List. whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/mn. (accessed on January 15, 2007).

Mongolia

views updated May 21 2018

Mongolia

Culture Name

Mongolian, Mongol

Alternative Names

Formerly called Mongolian People's Republic (19211989)

Orientation

Identification. Genghis Khan banded the Mongolian tribes together for the first time in 1206 and formed a unified state. The steppe empires and nomadic culture created by the ancient Mongols hold a unique place in world history, and modern Mongols are very proud of this particular heritage.

Location and Geography. Mongolia is a large landlocked country in Central Asia, and is bordered on the north by the Russian Federation and on the south by the People's Republic of China. Measuring 604,100 square miles (1,565,000 square kilometers) in area, the country is larger than Western Europe, encompassing several geographical zones: desert, steppe, and mountainous terrain. Mongolia's climate is extreme, with low precipitation and long harsh winters where temperatures can dip to -50 degrees centigrade. The capital city is Ulaanbaatar, meaning "Red Hero."

Demography. With only 2.6 million people as of July 2000, Mongolia is one of the world's most sparsely populated countries. The nation also has an extremely young population, with over 70 percent of people less than thirty years old.

Linguistic Affiliation. Khalkha Mongolian is the official language and is spoken by 90 percent of the people. Minor languages include Kazakh, Russian, and Chinese. Khalka Mongolian is part of the diverse Uralic-Altaic language family, which spread with the ancient Mongol Empire and also contains Korean, Manchu, Turkish, Finnish, and Hungarian. Each of these languages features a highly inflected grammar. Khalkha Mongolian may be written in traditional Uighur (vertical) or Cyrillic script.

Symbolism. The national symbol is the soyombo, featured on the Mongolian flag. Each aspect of the complex design is meaningful and there are components representing fire, sun, moon, earth, water, and the yin-yang symbol. The soyombo dates to at least the 17th century, and is associated with Lamaism.

History and Ethnic Relations

Emergence of the Nation. The name "Mongol" first appears in historical records in the 10th century c.e. Until the late 12th century, the Mongols were a fragmented group of warring clans. In 1162, a Mongol named Temujin was born who eventually became the leader of the Borjigin Mongol clan. After twenty years of warfare, he united most of the Mongol clans and was given the honorary title Genghis Khan ("Universal King") in 1206. The unparalleled conquests of the Mongols under Genghis Khan enabled them to expand their empire far beyond their own territories in Asia, as far as central Europe. The Mongol Empire lasted approximately 175 years, until internal conflicts caused its power to wane. In the 17th century, the former empire lost its independence and was ruled by the Manchus for 200 years. In 1911 the Manchu government was overthrown; the Mongols spent the next ten years freeing themselves from Chinese domination with Russian assistance. A decade of political and military struggles led to the Mongolian-Soviet treaty of 1921, which recognized Mongolia's independence. In 1924, the Mongolian People's Republic was officially established as the second socialist nation in the world after the U.S.S.R. Major democratizing political and economic reforms began in the late 1980s following the disintegration of the U.S.S.R. This democratic movement resulted in the emergence of multiple political parties and the beginnings of a free market economy by 1990.

National Identity. National cultureincluding societal organization, governance, land management, cultural customs, and material culturewas largely shaped by the nomadic pastoral lifestyle. The legacy of Genghis Khan's empire is a rallying point for Mongol nationalist pride today.

Ethnic Relations. Approximately 78 percent of people are Khalkha Mongols. Minority groups include Kazakh, Dorvod, Bayad, Buriad, Dariganga, Zahchin, Urianhai, Oolld. and Torguud. The largest of these minority groups, Kazakhs make up 4 percent of the total population. Small numbers of Russians and Chinese permanently live in Mongolia. While relations between Mongols and Russians are generally warm, widespread resentment exists among Mongols for the growing presence of entrepreneurial Chinese in their country.

Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space

Rapid urbanization and industrialization accompanied extensive Soviet aid following World War II and in the 1950s, the country adopted a new economic strategy that added industrial activities and more extensive farming to its mainstay of livestock production. Many people migrated from rural to urban areas to work in the new industrial centers, and a population that was 78 percent rural in 1956 was 58 percent urban by 1990. Many urban settlers continued to live in traditional nomadic gers, round tents made of folding wooden walls and heavy felt outer coverings.

Food and Economy

Food in Daily Life. Approximately twenty five million head of livestock supply the staples of the diet; meat and dairy products feature prominently in this cuisine. Mongolian cooking is generally very simple and does not use many spices, flavorings or sauces. Common dishes include steamed meatfilled dumplings (buuz ), mutton soup with noodles (guriltai shul ) and fried meat pasties (huushuur ). Mongolians drink copious quantities of milk tea (suutei tsai ), which frequently contains salt and a generous spoonful of fresh or rancid butter.

Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. Food is an important element of the Mongolian hospitality tradition. When guests arrive, each household sets out a special hospitality bowl containing homemade cheeses, flour pastries (bordzig ), sugar cubes and candy. The fattest animals are slaughtered to be eaten. Meat-filled dumplings are traditionally served to guests. Vodka shots are served at regular intervals during a celebration.

Basic Economy. Primary to the economy are the "five types of animals:" sheep, goats, cattle (mainly yak), horses, and camels. From these livestock numerous animal products are harvested, including meat, dairy products, hides, and wool. Agricultural production takes place in some regions where grains (wheat, barley, oats), animal fodder, potatoes, and other vegetables are grown. The country is rich in natural resources including coal, copper, gold, fluorspar, and molybdenum, and has prospective areas for oil extraction that are currently being explored.

The national currency is the tugrik.

Land Tenure and Property. Before socialism, a quasi-feudal system existed in which local aristocratic families and monasteries primarily governed: they administered pastureland, settled disputes between herding households, and collected taxes. Herders mostly owned their animals but paid taxes to the nobility for using pastureland. In the 1920's, the U.S.S.R. forced rural collectivization of herds within the Soviet Union and encouraged the Mongolian government to follow suit. However, widespread resistance by herders delayed the implementation of nationwide herding collectives until after World War II. Under the socialist system, the numbers of private animals that could be owned was tightly restricted, but these restrictions began to be lifted in the late 1980's.

Major Industries. A number of manufacturing plants were built under socialism which continue to operate today. Industries include food and beverage processing, leather goods, textiles, carpets, chemicals, cement, and mining operations, especially coal mining.

Trade. Under socialism, the country participated in Comecon, the U.S.S.R.-led, Communist-bloc trade organization. Approximately 85 percent of foreign trade was with the Soviet Union. In the early 1990's, the abrupt loss of foreign aid from the U.S.S.R. along with new trade policies among the former Soviet satellite nations resulted in major economic disruption. Since then, the country has been developing its free market economy and products now being exported include livestock, animal products, cashmere, wool, hides, copper, and fluorspar and other nonferrous metals. The country maintains trade relations with over 25 countries and joined the World Trade Organization in 1997.

Division of Labor. In rural areas of the country, livestock production still predominates followed by crop production. In herding households, people of all ages are involved in safeguarding, caring for, and increasing the herds on which they subsist. While both young men and women participate in herding activities, older persons may help with caring for animals at the campsite and doing household chores including repairing tools, preparing hides, sewing, cooking, and childcare. By contrast, in urban areas manufacturing, industrial, and service-oriented jobs are the norm. For these jobs, specialized abilities and training are more frequently required.

Social Stratification

Classes and Castes. Like many nomadic pastoral cultures, the Mongols had a segmentary society, originally organized into a hierarchy of families, clans, tribes, and confederations. While social classes including nobility, herders, artisans, and slaves existed, the social structure was not completely rigid and social mobility was possible. Under socialism, economic and social equality increased as variation in herd size and wealth levels was reduced. Economic expansion and rapid industrialization also contributed to increasing social mobility. The post-socialist period has been marked by increasing wealth differentiation. While certain segments of the population, such as new entrepreneurs, have prospered in the 1990s, others have become rapidly impoverished.

Symbols of Social Stratification. In ancient times, material cultural objects including headdresses, clothing, horse-blankets and saddles, jewelry, and other personal objects were visual symbols of tribal affiliation and social status. Today emerging wealth is often shown by purchasing and displaying expensive imported goods from Western countries.

Political Life

Government. As a socialist nation, Mongolia modeled its political and economic systems on those of the U.S.S.R. For seven decades, the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) governed, working closely with the Soviet Union. A major transition in governmental structure and political institutions began in the late 1980s in response to the collapse of the U.S.S.R. Free elections in 1990 resulted in a multiparty government that was still mostly Communist. A new constitution was adopted in 1992. In 1996, the Communist MPRP was defeated for the first time since 1921 by an electoral coalition called the Democratic Alliance. However, after four turbulent years and a series of prime ministers, the MPRP regained control of the government in 2000.

The highest legislative body is a unicameral parliament called the State Great Hural with 76 elected members. A president serves as the head of state and a prime minister is the head of government. After legislative elections, the leader of the majority party is typically elected prime minister by the parliament. The president is elected to a four year term by popular vote. Local government leaders are elected at the aimag (provincial) and soum (district) levels.

Social Problems and Control. The original Mongolian legal code was the yasa, a body of laws created after Genghis Khan's death but greatly influenced by his system of state administration. This legal code dealt with military discipline, criminal law and societal customs and regulation. The modern legal system is closely related to that of the Soviet Union. Under socialism, crimes committed against the state and/or socialist owned property were treated particularly harshly. In the post socialist era, emerging poverty has resulted in an increase in crimes such as property theft and robbery, especially in the major cities.

Military Activity. Situated in the geographically strategic location between Russia and China, the country is deeply concerned with national security issues. Mongolian and Soviet troops have generally been closely allied throughout the 20th century. These armies fought together in the 1921 Mongolian Revolution and in the 1930s against Japanese border incursions. Under socialism, both Soviet and Mongolian military bases existed in the Gobi region where the Mongolian border with China was heavily guarded.

Social Welfare and Change Programs

An elaborate social welfare system was established under socialism, providing all citizens with access to health care, education, and pensions. The government received significant subsidies from the U.S.S.R. to pay for these generous programs. Following the withdrawal of Soviet aid, funding these programs has been a major challenge. New social problems, such as the existence of several thousand street children, have arisen as fallout from the ongoing economic crisis.

Gender Roles and Statuses

Division of Labor by Gender. For many centuries, there was a customary gender division of labor in this nomadic pastoral society. Men typically handled external affairs including military, administrative, and trade matters. Men were primarily responsible for herding animals, hunting, slaughtering animals, and maintaining animal shelters. Repairing carts, tools, and weapons were also considered men's work. Women were mainly responsible for housework, milking animals, making dairy products, cooking, washing, sewing, and nurturing children.

Relative Status of Women and Men. Unlike their counterparts elsewhere in Asia, Mongolian women historically enjoyed fairly high status and freedom. Since fertility was valued over virginity, the Mongols did not place the same emphasis on female purity as found in the Islamic societies in Asia. Although women had legal equality with men under socialism, they were burdened with the responsibilities of housework and childcare as well as their labor for wages.

Marriage, Family, and Kinship

Marriage. Traditionally, families were the main unit of production in this herding society. The kinship system was patrilineal and sons generally established households in a common camp with their fathers. Marriages were arranged by parents and a bridal dowry (usually consisting of animals) was negotiated based upon the social status of the families. The 20th-century norm became for children to choose their own marriage partners with less extensive parental involvement.

Domestic Unit. Several generations of families customarily live together in a nomadic camp known as a khot ail ("group of tents") and share herding tasks. This camp, generally consisting of two to seven households, serves as a way of pooling labor for herding and has numerous social and ritual functions. Besides the khot ail, a larger neighborhood group called neg nutgiinhan ("people of one place") generally consists of four to twenty khot ails that frequently move and work together.

Inheritance. Historically, the cultural pattern of old age support was ultimogeniture and the youngest son would typically inherit the largest share of the parent's animals. Today, there is greater variation in inheritance depending on personality considerations and the economic and living circumstances of different family members.

Socialization

Child Rearing and Education. Children have always been treasured in Mongolian culture, and large families were historically the norm. Large families were considered desirable because many children ensured extra help and security in old age. Although family size is changing today, the country is still so sparsely populated that some people still believe it is advantageous to have "as many Mongolians as possible." Attitudes about child rearing are generally quite relaxed and all family members participate in the supervision and moral education of children. Under socialism, a high value was placed on elementary education and literacy. While education was limited to monks in Buddhist monasteries before the 20th century, under socialism the adult literacy rate rose to over 90 percent.

Higher Education. The Mongolian State University was founded in 1942. Much of the teaching was originally in Russian due to a lack of Mongol language texts in specialized fields. Under socialism, the higher education system provided opportunities for promising students from all regions of the country to participate in advanced study in the Soviet Union or in Eastern Europe and education was closely linked to upward social mobility.

Etiquette

Hospitality has always been extremely important in Mongolian culture. Since visitors often travel great distances, there are many ritual ways of showing politeness, especially to guests. One such custom that remains from feudal times is the snuff bottle ritual a guest and host offer each other their snuff bottles to examine as part of a greeting ritual. It is customarily expected that guests will be served the finest food possible and that vodka will also be plentiful.

Religion

Religious Beliefs. The main religion is Lamaism, which is the Yellow Sect of Tibetan Buddhism. Until the 16th century, shamanism was the dominant religion in Mongolia. Lamaism was introduced to the populace by the leader Altan Khan (150783). In the 18th century, the Manchus further encouraged Lamaism since they preferred Mongol males to become monks rather than warriors. Paralleling the Stalinist period in the Soviet Union, communists held massive religious purges in the 1930s. More than 700 monasteries were destroyed and thousands of monks were killed. In the post-socialist period, Buddhism is experiencing a resurgence and young people are again learning Buddhist practices from their elders who still remember them from their own childhoods. Approximately 5 percent of the total Mongolian population are Sunni Muslims, mainly ethnic Kazakhs in the western region. After 1990, Western missionaries arrived in Mongolia and began to proselytize; there may be as many as several thousand Mongolian Christians today.

Religious Practitioners. As the importance of Lamaist temples grew in the society, each Mongol family was encouraged to provide one son to be raised in a temple and become a lama. Fewer women became nuns although there were some who pursued this career. Training for lamas focused on theological studies and learning to perform elaborate ceremonies to be carried out for the people. Since many temples had extensive libraries, some lamas were also trained in subjects including astronomy, astrology, mathematics, and medicine. While a small percentage of temples were preserved intact under socialism, the majority were dismantled and the lamas returned to the work force at large. In the post-socialist era, those who are familiar with Lamaist traditions are now in great demand to educate younger people who have received no formal religious training.

Rituals and Holy Places. For centuries, Lamaist temples played a central role in community life and were a major gathering place for nomads living considerable distances apart. Although many temples were destroyed under socialism, a number remained standing including three major temples that were preserved as showcases of traditional culture: Gandan Monastery (Ulaanbaatar), Erdene Zuu Monastery (Ovorkhangai), and Amarbayasgalant Monastery (near Darkhan).

Death and the Afterlife. Funerals were traditionally an important and costly event for Mongolian families. They would customarily give lamas substantial monetary gifts to pray for the well-being of the spirit of the deceased. Receiving the lamas' consultation about the handling and disposition of the body was considered very important to prevent future misfortune from occurring to the family. Others in the community would typically provide gifts of animals and money to assist the family at the time of the funeral.

Medicine and Health Care

While basic healthcare became available nationwide under socialism, specialized care remained concentrated in cities. Along with Western-style medicine, herbal medicine, acupuncture, and massage are widely practiced in Mongolia. Based on the Soviet and Eastern European tradition, therapeutic spas became very popular. Although the primary healthcare system operated quite efficiently under socialism, providing adequate healthcare resources in the post-socialist era has proved challenging due to the ongoing economic crisis. Thus, the long-term impact of this major societal transition on health indicators is unknown. In 2000, the estimated life expectancy at birth for the total population was 67.25 years, with male life expectancy being 64.98 years and female life expectancy being 69.64 years.

Secular Celebrations

Major public holidays are New Year's Day (1 January); Lunar New Year or Tsagaan Car, meaning "White Month," a three-day holiday with variable dates in late January to early February); Women's Day (8 March); Naadam, anniversary of 1921 Mongolian Revolution (1113 July); and Mongolian Republic Day (26 November).

The Arts and Humanities

Literature. Since the Mongols were always highly mobile, most art forms that became popular were portable and involved little or no equipment, such as epic poetry, literature, music, and dance. The most famous epic poem of all time is "The Secret History of the Mongols," a long poem describing Genghis Khan's rise to power and the creation of the Mongol Empire. This poem was written down in the mid- to late-13th century and was supposed to be hidden from non-Mongols. Folktales also played a major role in oral literature and their subject matter ranged from love to heroism to supernatural acts. Modern literature has been heavily influenced by Western literary styles, especially Russian literature.

Graphic Arts. The nature and types of graphic arts found in Mongolia were also influenced by the nomadic heritage. Articles of daily use including saddles, horse blankets, storage chests, and knives were often highly decorative. Painting and sculpture could be found in permanent buildings, such as temples, throughout the country. Religious themes dominated traditional painting and sculpture because these art forms were largely produced within Lamaist temples. The Museum of Fine Arts in Ulaanbaatar has an extensive collection of Lamaistic paintings, sculpture, and other religious objects from different periods. Scroll paintings called tanka that depicted the various gods and saints of Lamaist Buddhism decorated every temple. These paintings were both imported from Tibet and created locally by lamas. Tanka came in a variety of sizes and were often painted on cotton or silk. In the post-socialist period, it has become increasingly popular for Mongol families to own tanka and display them in their homes. Under socialism, local artists produced their own substantial body of Soviet-encouraged socialist art, which is less in favor today.

Performance Arts. Performing arts have been widely practiced in Mongolia for centuries. Today there are many professional and amateur theaters and musical organizations both in the capital and in other provincial towns. In both the socialist and post-socialist eras, the government has been supportive of performing arts and has subsidized traveling shows of operas, plays, ballets, folk music and dancing, and circuses. The most important folk instrument is the morin khuur (horse-head fiddle), a stringed instrument whose name comes from the horse head carved above the tuning pegs. The morin khuur has a trapezoid-shaped body, leather sounding board, and two strings that are played with a bow made of wood and horsehair. Playing from a seated position, the musician rests the morin khuur on his knee. In many areas of the country, men were traditionally expected to know how to play the morin khuur. It is often played together with the tovshuur and the shudraga (two banjo-like stringed instruments). Other instruments used in folk music include transverse and vertical flutes, drums, cymbals, gongs, and tambourines. Like poetry, vocal music is very important in this culture and there are multiple types of folk songs. Herding songs and work songs are most typical and these songs can have specific purposes (e.g., a herding song to call back animals that have strayed or a work song sung while setting up camp). Other types of folk songs include yurol (songs of blessing), maatgal (songs of praise), urtyn duu ("long songs" performed by professional singers with operatic training), and khoomei (harmonic singing in which one performer combines humming and whistling to sound like several people singing at once). In the post-socialist era, the country's youth have embraced Western music and there are quite a few nightclubs in the major cities where one can dance to the same pop music topping the charts in the United States, Europe, and elsewhere in Asia. A growing number of local rock groups are now performing whose music is mainly sold in Mongolia but can also sometimes be found in other Asian countries.

The State of the Physical and Social Sciences

Based on the Soviet model, under socialism the country established specialized research institutes that were separate from the academic departments which taught science in universities. The Mongolian Academy of Science was founded in 1961 and had at least 14 working research institutes by the 1980s. In the post-socialist period, the Mongolian Academy of Science fell upon hard times during the national economic crisis. However, funding from a variety of international organizations enabled some Mongolian scientists to study abroad and have access to state-of-the-art equipment. The Academy also has Internet access, allowing scientists to easily communicate with their scholarly peers in other nations.

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Sherylyn H. Briller

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