Leo XIII

Leo XIII (1810–1903), Pope from 1878. He restored good relations with Germany after the Kulturkampf, procuring the gradual abolition of the May Laws in 1886 and 1887. In 1892 he established an Apostolic Delegation in Washington, and he renewed contacts with Russia and Japan. The improved relations with Britain found expression in King Edward VII's visit to the Vatican in 1903. Relations with Italy, however, remained strained, and those between the Church and State in France deteriorated.

His pontificate was important for the lead which he gave on political and social issues. In some notable encyclicals he developed the Christian doctrine of the State; he defined the respective spheres of spiritual and temporal power and emphasized the compatibility of Catholic teaching with a moderate democracy. His most important pronouncement on social questions was ‘Rerum Novarum’ (q.v.) in 1891. He established the Biblical Commission in 1902 and gave some encouragement to the new methods of Biblical criticism. He encouraged Anglican aspirations for union and appointed a commission to investigate Anglican Ordinations, but rejected them as invalid in 1896. He promoted the spiritual life of the Church and encouraged the work of the missions, especially the formation of a native clergy.