socialism

socialism A diffuse ideology that developed in the early nineteenth century by pioneers like Robert Owen in Britain, and Saint-Simon and Louis Blanc in France, in response to the evils of capitalism that became evident during the industrial revolution. Appalled by the mass poverty and inequality of wealth, socialists argued for a more egalitarian social system. This would then transform society not just in material, but also in moral terms, as individualism and self-interest gave way to association, solidarity, and community. However, socialists differed widely about how this goal was to be achieved. While many emphasized voluntary action, most notably through the foundation and development of cooperative movements, an increasing number of socialists became disillusioned with the gradualism of this approach, and emphasized direct political action instead.

It was at this point that cooperation between socialist and liberal parties ended, and socialist, or social democratic, parties were founded which aimed specifically at working-class votes. This occurred at varying times throughout Europe, starting with Germany in 1869, while in Britain this process only occurred after 1900. The need for socialists to distinguish themselves from liberalism and other voluntarist ideologies to the right was complicated by the development of a ‘scientific socialism’ in Marxist ideology. Accordingly, socialism was a transitional phase to a Communist society, in which all ownership was abolished. This was less of a problem in Anglo-Saxon countries, where Communism never gained a mass following. In continental Europe, however, the distinction between socialists and Communists was often blurred in theory, though in practice their distinctions became more pronounced during and after World War I. During the war, socialist parties supported the state orders in which they operated, despite their theoretical commitments to internationalism and solidarity. As universal franchises were introduced in the first decades of the twentieth century, socialism became a dominant political idea, not just among socialist parties, but also among liberals, who accepted the need for social legislation in an attempt to halt their own demise. Similarly, as socialists gained their first experiences in government, they became more pragmatic, as the success of their programme now depended upon the cooperation of the middle and propertied classes (who remained in control of the bureaucratic machinery).

Socialism gained its widest appeal and realization in the years during and after the apocalyptic experience of World War II, which led to the widespread popular desire for a just society. Even where conservative governments remained in power, they were forced to adopt a series of social welfare reform measures, so that in most industrialized countries, the post-World War period saw the creation of a welfare state. Socialism came under heavy attack after the 1973 oil-price shock. Social welfare systems were criticized by monetarists and conservatives as a hindrance to self-advancement. It was also under attack as the root cause of the failure of the European and Australian and New Zealand industrial societies to compete with new, capitalist Asian economies. Thus, socialists were under intense pressure to refashion themselves from the 1990s, and to harmonize their ideal for social justice and community with the maintenance of individual incentive and dynamism.

Socialist Parties (various); Social Democratic Parties (various); Labour Parties (various), globalization