Sudan

Sudan Under Ottoman/ Egyptian rule since 1821, it became an Anglo-Egyptian ‘condominium’, under British sovereignty and Egyptian administration. It was governed by indirect rule, whereby the influential positions were given to Muslims from northern Sudan. Inspired by Egyptian independence, which inevitably raised questions about the future administration of Sudan, two nationalist movements emerged. The Umma Party (Mahdism) stood for immediate independence. By contrast, the National Unionist Party under al-Azhari's leadership favoured constitutional links with Egypt. The latter won the 1953 elections and led the party to independence on 1 January 1956.

Independence was the catalyst for a bloody civil war, which became the central issue of Sudanese politics. Its essence was the rebellion by the southern minority (around one-third of the total population), which was largely Christian, against the rule of the central government, which was dominated by groups from the Muslim north. The army coup of 1958 led to a brief military government under Abboud until 1964, when unstable civilian rule was resumed with Azhari as head of state. In 1969 Azhari was himself replaced by Nimieri, who gained control in a military coup.

Nimieri managed to bring about an end to the civil war following negotiations in the Ethiopian capital of Addis Ababa in 1972, whereby he guaranteed the south enhanced autonomy on religious and cultural matters. He introduced disastrous economic policies which took up vast foreign investment with the aim of achieving a fivefold increase in food production. This aim had to be abandoned owing to the lack of careful planning, the lack of an infrastructural base, and unsuitable climatic and agricultural conditions. Faced by a growing economic crisis, Nimieri sought to enlist the support of the growing Islamic fundamentalist movement through openly pursuing Islamic policies. An administrative reform took away the autonomy of the southern region, and in 1983 he declared the supremacy of Islamic law.

This triggered renewed civil war. Nimieri was overthrown in a military coup in 1985, and in 1986 civilian rule was restored under al-Mahdi. The new government was too weak, however, to reverse Nimieri's Islamic policies, which were supported by many powerful groups in the north, as well as the army. An army coup of 20 July 1989 brought to power a group of Islamic officers, which resumed the establishment of Islamic codes and practices in Sudanese politics and society. In 1993 the military junta appointed Omar Hassan al-Beshir as President in 1993.

Meanwhile, the civil war escalated, as the SSIA (Southern Sudan Independence Army), which demanded independence for the south, split from the SPLA (Sudan People's Liberation Army), which focused on greater autonomy within Sudan, in 1991. It was estimated that between 1983 and 2000 the war claimed almost two million casualties, and created over four million refugees. There were frequent attempts to negotiate a ceasefire, for example, by former US President Carter in 1995. However, the government remained determined to crush the SPLA, since the south was rich in mineral resources. In June 1995 the SPLA and the SSIA came to an agreement with the Muslim opposition of the north, led by the Umma Party and the UNP. They agreed to coordinate their activities in a National Democratic Front. In response, al-Beshir moved to make political concessions to the Umma Party and northern opposition groups. Some parties were allowed to operate, and Nimieri was allowed to return and resume his political activities. In the process of these domestic political shifts, the governing party, the National Congress, split in 1999 as its Secretary, Hassan al-Turabi, led an unsuccessful attempt to curb al-Bashir's powers. Nevertheless, in the 2000 general elections (not held in the rebellious South), al-Bashir was elected with 85 per cent of the popular vote. As al-Bashir shored up his powers further, the civil war continued to rage in the south, encouraged by rising oil exploration which increased the stakes both for the government and for the secessionists. Under great pressure from the USA, both sides agreed to a surprise peace deal in 2002, whereby Islamic law would not be applied to the South and a referendum for independence would be held there. On 6 January 2004, both sides agreed to share oil (and non-oil) revenues equally.