Spain

Spain Nineteenth-century Spain was marked by an inability to overcome the diverse and often conflicting economic tensions arising from the loss of its vast colonial empire, political and administrative tensions emerging from Napoleonic rule at the beginning of the century, and regional tensions caused by the distinctiveness of its regions, particularly in the Basque territory and Catalonia. In the second half of the nineteenth century, these regional differences became more marked owing to the rise of nationalism, and economic change. The permanence of these conflicts was caused by, and in turn increased, chronic political instability, and by the civil wars of 1833–40 and 1872–6. The latter war restored the monarchy, which remained weak because of the early death of Alfonso XII (b. 1857, d. 1885) and the infancy of Alfonso XIII. The tensions of the nineteenth century increased during the early twentieth. Illusions about world-power status were finally destroyed by defeat in the Spanish–American War of 1898, and the consequent loss of the Philippines, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Guam. To compensate for this, Spain tried to conquer territory in Morocco. That war ultimately led to greater instability, as northern Morocco was not secured for Spain until 1926, while the cost of the war was completely disproportionate to any meagre economic gain that possession of the colony might have entailed.

On the domestic front, economic change and industrialization, which was confined to a few regions, led to the growth of the Socialist Party and its affiliated trade union, the General Workers' Union (UGT). This period also saw the growth of anarcho-syndicalists, who had a large following among the landless labourers in the countryside, especially those living in a sharecropping system. Socialists and anarcho-syndicalists operated outside and against the political system, and not only preached revolution but tried to bring it about through general strikes (e.g. in 1917) and frequent bomb attacks. While it appeared that the prosperity arising from Spain's neutrality during World War I might result in greater acceptance of the regime, an economic crisis from 1917 furthered general unrest.

To forestall the ostensible breakup of the country, and frustrated by disastrous losses in the conquest of Morocco, the army staged a coup on 13 September 1923. Its leader, Primo de Rivera, tried to bring about badly needed reforms through progressive social policies and an improvement of labour relations. His attempts were doomed, however, since he tried to carry them out mostly against the country's entrenched interests. Equally importantly, he lacked any political basis, so after losing the support of the army he had no option but to resign in 1930. The municipal elections of 1931 produced a narrow victory for the republican parties, and induced King Alfonso XIII to leave the country.

The eminent moderate Republican Alcalá Zamora became the Second Republic's first President, while Azaña became Prime Minister. The latter began an ambitious reform project to reduce the overwhelming influence of the Roman Catholic Church, grant (successfully) autonomy to Catalonia, end all privilege by birth, and reform the military. In other words, the Republicans took on virtually all the established interests at the same time, and the more they failed in most of their endeavours, the more dogged they became. The 1933 elections produced a victory for the right-wing parties, which were subsequently opposed by incessant demonstrations and strikes.

In 1936 a left-wing Popular Front won the elections, amidst continuing unrest. The general chaos precipitated a military coup attempt by the army under Franco. This failed to take over the government in a decisive sweep, and had the paradoxical effect of creating even greater chaos, leading to anarchy within the Republic. The conflicts between the interests and groups that supported the Republic, however, were ultimately responsible for the defeat of the Second Republic in the bitter Spanish Civil War of 1936–9.

After the war, Franco established an authoritarian regime in which political parties were banned with the exception of the Falange, while press censorship and the lack of a constitution added to Franco's control yet further. He was not interested in reconciling the two sides of the Civil War, and increased their differences instead by executing thousands of his former enemies immediately after the war, and discriminating against his former opponents throughout the regime. With the defeat of Hitler's Nazi dictatorship in Germany and Mussolini's government in Italy, Fascism turned into a liability. Franco progressively toned down the Fascist elements of his regime. Instead, he emphasized the role of the Roman Catholic Church, which was formalized through the 1953 Concordat with the Vatican. The Law of the Principles of the National Movement (17 May 1958) recognized the role of the Roman Catholic Church, the monarchy, and society based on, and represented by, estates, as the three central pillars of the state (corporatism). The conservatism of this state was greatly undermined, however, by the country's economic and industrial progress, which went hand in hand with increasing secularization. Franco's hierarchical state was less and less based on social reality, and relied increasingly on his presence alone. This made it very difficult for his regime to survive him.

Franco was succeeded by Juan Carlos, who became King upon Franco's death in 1975. To bring about rapid democratization, Juan Carlos appointed the energetic Suárez as his Prime Minister, who devised legislation for the establishment of a democratic system, and won the ensuing elections in 1977. The young democracy was tested by a military coup on 23 February 1981, which failed thanks partly to the defiance of the King. In 1982 the election victory of the Socialist Party under González inaugurated a period of social democratic rule which lasted until 1996. During this time, Spain was fully integrated into the international community through the confirmation of Spanish membership of NATO after narrow approval at a plebiscite in 1986. It became a member of the EEC on 1 January 1986 and a pillar of further European integration, after ending the blockade of Gibraltar imposed by Franco in 1969.

International integration required and in part precipitated a structural transformation of the Spanish economy, as it attracted a significant amount of investment in modern technology and industry. Nevertheless, the country continued to be plagued by a long-term average unemployment rate of around 25 per cent. Despite concerted efforts to reconcile regional autonomy with national integration, and to address the grievances of the Basque and Catalan peoples in particular, González was unable to reduce those regions' strivings for greater autonomy. He was also unable to contain the Basque terrorist organization ETA, which remained the most active European terrorist organization of the 1980s and 1990s. Evidence of government corruption and resentment at the loss of the González government's sparkle led to his defeat in the 1996 elections.

The elections, which brought to power the Popular Party under the leadership of Aznar, were widely considered to mark the coming of age of Spanish democracy. They established a national two-party system consisting of a moderate right-wing and a moderate left-wing party. Aznar presided over a highly successful economy, which benefited from increased domestic demand and from export-led growth. As a result, Spain qualified for membership in the European Monetary Union, and adopted the euro in 1999. Aznar was also successful at first in dealing with the issue of Basque separatism, but in 1999 ETA resumed its terrorist campaign against tourists and Spanish administrative and political officials. In the 2000 elections the Popular Party increased its share of the vote by 5.7 per cent, and for the following years enjoyed an absolute majority in government. Aznar moved to secure the regional payments received by Spain from the EU in the context of the EU's Eastern enlargement due 2004. In the face of public opinion, Aznar became a prominent backer of the US-led Iraq War in 2003. In return for its support, Spain received US assistance in its fight against Basque terrorism.