American War of Independence

American War of Independence, 1775–83. The roots of American independence go as deep as the original settlements—colonists of a dissenting disposition, the development of a more egalitarian society without bishops or noblemen, colonial assemblies gaining political experience, and a population increasing in size, prosperity, and confidence. In 1715 the colonists numbered fewer than half a million, of whom 70,000 were negro slaves. By 1770 there were more than 2 million.

The crisis was triggered by the Seven Years War, during which the British drove the French out of Canada. Only the threat of falling prey to Spain or France had kept the colonists in check. That check was removed at exactly the moment that the British became alarmed at the rising cost of the plantations: they were determined that the Americans should bear more of the imperial burden. Grenville's Stamp Act of 1764 led to a storm of protest. Though the Stamp Act was repealed in 1766, the Declaratory Act which reaffirmed British sovereignty deprived the gesture of much of its appeal. The imposition of the Townshend duties provoked violence. The Boston massacre of 1770 was followed by the seizure of the Gaspée in 1772 and the Boston Tea Party in 1773. By 1774 the Americans had summoned a congress to concert resistance.

Once fighting began at Lexington in 1775, Britain faced a difficult military task. To occupy and garrison so vast a country was out of the question. But many Americans remained loyal to the crown and British armed intervention could give them the upper hand. The first phase finished when Burgoyne's grandiose plan to cut off New England ended in capitulation at Saratoga in October 1777. Though the disaster could have been retrieved, it brought France and Spain into the conflict. Nevertheless the issue remained in doubt and Washington experienced great difficulty in holding his troops together. In 1780 Cornwallis led a major expedition to the southern colonies. He was cut off and his surrender at Yorktown in October 1781 brought the conflict to an end. American independence was recognized by the treaty of Versailles in 1783.

The short‐term consequences were less dramatic than many expected. Though Britain's eclipse as a world power was confidently predicted, her economic recovery was swift. But in the long run there was a great shift of power across the Atlantic and the population of the USA passed that of the mother country soon after the American Civil War, in the 1860s. In the long perspective of world events, the colonization and the loss of America, together with the spread of the English language and English parliamentary institutions, seems the single most important development in British history.