United Irishmen, Society of

United Irishmen, Society of, established in Belfast (by Neilson, Tone, and Russell) on 18 October 1791 and in Dublin (by Tone, Russell, and Tandy), on 9 November, with smaller clubs in other centres. The membership of the Belfast society was Presbyterian and predominantly middle class; that of the Dublin society, roughly equally divided between Protestant and Catholic, was middle class with a sprinkling of gentry and aristocracy. The society's ideology combined the new radicalism inspired by the American and French Revolutions with the older traditions of British advanced Whig or commonwealth doctrine, and Irish patriotism. Its main aims were parliamentary reform and the removal of English control of Irish affairs. It was not until 1794, however, that the Dublin society defined reform in terms of indirect elections by universal male suffrage, and the early United Irishmen also stopped short of overt separatism or republicanism. The society's most distinctive commitment was to a union of Irishmen of all denominations, though here too some Protestant members were privately uneasy at the prospect of full Catholic emancipation.

The United Irishmen initially operated as a radical club, disseminating propaganda through the Northern Star and other publications, and seeking to act as a radicalizing influence within larger bodies, notably the Volunteers. During 1793 the Gunpowder Act and Convention Act curtailed Volunteering, while prosecutions silenced leading radicals like Hamilton Rowan. In May 1794, following the arrest of William Jackson, the Dublin society was suppressed. United Irish leaders were later to blame these repressive measures for driving them to revolution. Recent research suggests that the effect was rather to advance a conspiratorial element already present, particularly within the Ulster movement, which now reorganized itself as a secret, oath‐bound organization geared for armed insurrection. The new clandestine structures, formalized in a revised constitution adopted on 10 May 1795, were extended to Dublin from the summer of 1796 and from there to surrounding counties. Meanwhile Tone had arrived in France in February 1796 to seek military support, and the Hoche expedition of December dramatically boosted recruitment and morale. By February 1798 the society claimed over 280,000 active members. This expansion, along with the increasingly close alliance with the Defenders, inevitably widened the gulf between the ideas of leaders and followers, as the goal of a democratic republic was reinforced, if not displaced, by ideas of a radical social transformation, and even of a settling of accounts with ‘heretic’ Protestants.

During 1797 the campaign of determined counter‐insurgency directed by General Lake severely weakened the United Irish organization in its Ulster heartland. In spring 1798 the focus of repression moved to the counties round Dublin. Lord Edward FitzGerald, Arthur O'Connor, and other United Irish leaders advocated immediate insurrection, but were opposed by moderates led by Emmet and W. J. MacNevin. The arrest of most members of the Leinster Directory on 12 March allowed Lord Edward, the Sheares brothers, and Neilson to frame plans for a rising. However, they too were in custody by 23 May, and it remains unclear how far the eventual insurrection of 1798 was centrally co‐ordinated.

A new United Irish organization, more tightly knit than its predecessor, appeared quite quickly after 1798, but collapsed following Robert Emmet's insurrection of 1803, although in France United Irish representatives remained active up to the fall of Napoleon.

Bibliography

Curtin, Nancy , The United Irishmen: Popular Politics in Ulster and Dublin 1791–1798 (1994)