Submarines

Submarines. Invented by the American David Bushnell in 1773 and later improved by Robert Fulton, submarines were used by the Confederates in several Civil War naval operations. It was around 1900, however, that submarines became feasible for warfare. Electricity propelled a double‐hulled, cigar‐shaped boat; compressed air forced ballast out of tanks between the hulls to permit surfacing; and the torpedo served as the main armament. Navies originally intended to use the submarine to scout and screen for the battle fleet.

Both world wars stimulated changes in mission and extensive improvements. German U‐boats became successful commerce raiders during World War I, but antisubmarine tactics, especially the escort of merchant‐ship convoys, eventually contained them. During World War II Germany deployed U‐boats equipped with snorkels to increase range and endurance. Wolf‐pack tactics were employed against convoys, but sophisticated antisubmarine methods—radar, sonar, and air‐sea‐ground cooperation—again thwarted German commerce raiding. Meanwhile, during the Pacific war, the United States maneuvered large fleet submarines against Japanese shipping. This effort eventually interdicted Japanese maritime communications and made a vital contribution to victory.

During the Cold War, the submarine became the most important naval vessel. The use of nuclear power to propel tear‐shaped submarines capable of launching nuclear‐armed missiles from beneath the surface provided an invulnerable weapon that became the principal instrument of nuclear deterrence in the age of mutual assured destruction. Admiral Hyman Rickover (1900–1986) emerged as a major advocate of nuclear submarines. The USS Nautilus (1954), which possessed great range and endurance, presaged the Polaris submarine‐launched ballistic missiles (SLBM) of the 1960s. The Poseidon missile entered service in 1970, followed by the Trident intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), accurate to 4,600 miles. Meanwhile the Soviet Union achieved comparable advances as the nuclear arms competition continued to escalate.

The end of the Cold War and the consequent decline of international tension increased interest in arms control and disarmament, including nuclear submarines. The nuclear‐armed submarine, however, remained a part of the nation's military arsenal. Underwater vessels have also proven useful in scientific research and salvage operations.
See also Federal Government, Executive Branch: Department of Defense; Military, The; Nuclear Strategy; Nuclear Weapons.

Bibliography

Norman Friedman , U.S. Submarines since 1945, 1994.
Norman Friedman , U.S. Submarines through 1945, 1995.

David F. Trask