magic

magic is a phenomenon whose reality has been accepted in most societies. Differentiating it entirely from witchcraft is difficult, the generally accepted distinction being that whereas the ability to perform witchcraft is innate or inherited, magic involves the use of techniques and skills which can be learned.

Magical beliefs and practices existed at all social levels in the medieval and early modern periods, and were enmeshed in medical and scientific thought and techniques. The acceptance of astrology and alchemy as serious intellectual activities, the influence of hermetic writings and Neoplatonism, all of them accepting the reality of mystic forces, were symptomatic of widespread magical beliefs. It is instructive that, during the 15th cent., both the Scottish and English royal houses thought themselves to be threatened by plots involving the use of occult powers.

The interconnection between magic and what the modern mind accepts as legitimate intellectual activity is demonstrated by the career of John Dee (1527–1608), a mathematician of European repute, who while still young was offered the professorship of mathematics at the University of Paris. Later he travelled to eastern Europe, and resided in Prague, then an important intellectual centre. In between, he became virtual astrologer-royal to Elizabeth I. His advice was called for when fears arose of a plot to kill her by witchcraft and when the court was debating the deeper significance of the appearance of a new comet in 1577. From 1584, however, he became increasingly involved in attempts to make contacts with angels, and raise spirits. He was popularly regarded as a witch, although Dee and others like him regarded their activities as lawful.

That body of intellectual changes which is known as the scientific revolution downgraded magic as a serious area of study or means of explanation among the educated, although the interest of Newton and Boyle in alchemy demonstrates that the process was not straightforward. Among the lower orders, however, belief in magic continued well into the 19th cent. The medical advice and other services offered by cunning men and women were more readily and cheaply available than those of middle-class professionals, were more culturally familiar, were frequently as effective, and provided psychological comfort.

J. A. Sharpe