MAURITANIA

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT
TOPOGRAPHY
CLIMATE
FLORA AND FAUNA
ENVIRONMENT
POPULATION
MIGRATION
ETHNIC GROUPS
LANGUAGES
RELIGIONS
TRANSPORTATION
HISTORY
GOVERNMENT
POLITICAL PARTIES
LOCAL GOVERNMENT
JUDICIAL SYSTEM
ARMED FORCES
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
ECONOMY
INCOME
LABOR
AGRICULTURE
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
FISHING
FORESTRY
MINING
ENERGY AND POWER
INDUSTRY
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
DOMESTIC TRADE
FOREIGN TRADE
BALANCE OF PAYMENTS
BANKING AND SECURITIES
INSURANCE
PUBLIC FINANCE
TAXATION
CUSTOMS AND DUTIES
FOREIGN INVESTMENT
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
HEALTH
HOUSING
EDUCATION
LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS
MEDIA
ORGANIZATIONS
TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION
FAMOUS MAURITANIANS
DEPENDENCIES
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Mauritanian Islamic Republic

[French] République Islamique de Mauritanie;
[Arabic] Al-Jumhuriyah; al-Islamiyah al-Muritaniyah

CAPITAL: Nouakchott

FLAG: The flag consists of a gold star and crescent on a light green field.

ANTHEM: Mauritania (no words).

MONETARY UNIT: The ouguiya (um), a paper currency of 5 khoums, issued by the Central Bank of Mauritania, replaced the Communauté Financière Africaine franc on 29 June 1973. There are coins of 1 khoum and 1, 5, 10, and 20 ouguiyas, and notes of 100, 200, 500, and 1,000 ouguiyas. um1 = $0.00380 (or $1 = um263.03) as of 2003.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Labor Day, 1 May; African Liberation Day, 25 May; Anniversary of the Proclamation of the Republic, 28 November. Movable religious holidays include Laylat al-Miraj, 'Id al-Fitr, 'Id al-'Adha', 1st of Muharram (Muslim New Year), and Milad an-Nabi.

TIME: GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

Situated in West Africa, Mauritania has an area of 1,030,700 sq km (397,955 sq mi). Mauritania extends 1,515 km (941 mi) ne–sw and 1,314 km (816 mi) se–nw. Comparatively, the area occupied by Mauritania is slightly larger than three times the size of the state of New Mexico. It is bordered on the ne by Algeria, on the e and s by Mali, on the sw by Senegal, on the w by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the nw and n by the Western Sahara, with a total estimated boundary length of 5,828 km (3,621 mi), of which 754 km (469 mi) is coastline.

Mauritania's capital city, Nouakchott, is located on the Atlantic Coast.

TOPOGRAPHY

There are three distinct geographic regions in Mauritania: a narrow belt along the Senegal River valley in the south, where soil and climatic conditions permit settled agriculture; north of this valley, a broad east–west band characterized by vast sand plains and fixed dunes held in place by sparse grass and scrub trees; and a large northern arid region shading into the Sahara, advancing south several kilometers each year, and characterized by shifting sand dunes, rock outcroppings, and rugged mountainous plateaus that in a few places reach elevations of more than 500 m (1,640 ft). The high point, Mount Ijill at about 915 m (3,002 ft), is near Fdérik. The country is generally flat.

CLIMATE

Although conditions are generally desertlike, three climatic regions can be distinguished. Southern Mauritania has a Sahelian climate; there is one rainy season from July to October. Annual rainfall averages 66 cm (26 in) in the far south; at Nouakchott the annual average is 14 cm (5.5 in).

Trade winds moderate the temperature in the coastal region, which is arid. The average maximum temperature at Nouadhibou for January is 26°c (79°f), and for October 32°c (90°f); average minimums are 13°c (55°f) for January and 19°c (66°f) for July.

Most of Mauritania north of Atar—about two-thirds of the country—has a Saharan climate. Daytime temperatures exceed 38°c (100°f) in most areas for over 6 months of the year, but the nights are cool. Average annual rainfall at Atar is 10 cm (4 in).

FLORA AND FAUNA

In the desert there are some cacti and related species; oases support relatively luxuriant growth, notably date palms. In the south are grasses and trees common to the savanna regions, particularly the baobab tree, but also palms and acacias. The far south, in the Senegal River valley, has willows, jujube, and acacias. Lions, panthers, jackals, crocodiles, hippopotami, hyenas, cheetahs, otters, and monkeys survive in the south; in the north there are antelopes, wild sheep, ostriches and other large birds, and ducks. As of 2002, there were at least 61 species of mammals, 172 species of birds, and over 1,100 species of plants throughout the country.

ENVIRONMENT

Deforestation is a severe problem because of the population's growing need for firewood and construction materials. Slash-and-burn agriculture has contributed to soil erosion, which is aggravated by drought. The expansion of the desert into agricultural lands is accelerated by limited rainfall, deforestation, the consumption of vegetation by livestock, and wind erosion. The expansion of domestic herds onto grazing land formerly restricted to wildlife has also taken a serious toll on the environment, both in erosion and in encroachment on wildlife species. In 2003, only 1.7% of Mauritania's total land area was protected. The nation also has a problem with water pollution, resulting from the leakage of petroleum and industrial waste along with sewage into the nation's ports and rivers. A government-built dam on the Senegal River is expected to alleviate the country's water problems and stimulate agriculture.

According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the number of threatened species included 7 types of mammals, 5 species of birds, 2 types of reptiles, 11 species of fish, and 1 species of invertebrates. Threatened species include the African gerbil, African slender-snouted crocodiles, and barbary sheep. The Sahara oryx has become extinct in the wild.

POPULATION

The population of Mauritania in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 3,069,000, which placed it at number 132 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 3% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 43% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 98 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–10 was expected to be 2.7%, a rate the government viewed as satisfactory. The projected population for the year 2025 was 4,973,000. The overall population density was 3 per sq km (8 per sq mi), but varies significantly. More than 90% of the population lives in the southern quarter of the country, including the Senegal River Valley.

The UN estimated that 40% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 4.34%. The capital city, Nouakchott, had a population of 600,000 in that year.

MIGRATION

In seasonal grazing migrations, cattle are moved every year and are led to neighboring Senegal for sale. The droughts of the 1970s and early 1980s led to mass migrations to the towns. The population was 12% nomadic in 1988, compared to 83% in 1963. Some tribesmen of the Senegal River valley go to Dakar in Senegal for seasonal work or to engage in petty trade. A few thousand Mauritanians live in France. In 2000 the number of migrants in the country was 63,000. In 2000 remittances were $2 million, down from $14 million in 1990.

There were 6,148 Mauritanian refugees in Mali as of 2004 and 2,364 Mauritanians applied for asylum in France. In that same year there were also 19,777 Mauritanian refugees in Senegal, all assisted by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).

Between June 1995 and 1997, 36,000 Malian refugees in Mauritania returned home, with 6,782 Malian refugees still remaining. By the end of 2004, some 3,500 Malians remained in Mauritania, as did 26,000 Western Saharans. In 2004, there were 473 refugees and 117 asylum seekers in Mauritania. In 2005, the net migration rate was an estimated–0.04 migrants per 1,000 population. The government views the migration levels as satisfactory.

ETHNIC GROUPS

Moors (Maures), the main ethnic group, are a Caucasoid people of Berber and Arab stock, with some Negroid admixture. The Moors are further divided into ethno-linguistic tribal and clan groups. Other groups, all black, are the Tukulor, Sarakolé, Fulani (Fulbe), Wolof, and Bambara. The black population is found largely in southern Mauritania and in the cities. About 40% of the total population are a Moor/black admixture, 30% are Moors, and 30% are black. There is also small numbers of Europeans, mainly French and Spanish (the latter from the Canary Islands), and a small colony of Lebanese traders. Freed slaves or the descendants of freed slaves are known as haratin.

LANGUAGES

Arabic is the official language. The Arabic spoken in Mauritania is called Hasaniya. Wolof, Peular, and Soninke are spoken in southern Mauritania and recognized as national languages. French is widely used, particularly in business, but its status as an official language was eliminated in the 1991 constitution.

RELIGIONS

The constitution declares Islam to be the religion of both the state and its people. As such, over 99% of the population is Muslim, most of whom are Sunnis. The Qadiriya and the Tijaniya are influential Islamic brotherhoods. The few thousand Christians and a very small number of Jews are mostly foreigners. Though proselytizing is not legally prohibited, it is discouraged, particularly through restrictions on the publishing and distribution of materials that contradict or threaten the tenets of Islam.

TRANSPORTATION

Modern forms of transport are still undeveloped. There are few paved roads, only one freight railroad, two deep-water ports, and two airports that can handle international traffic.

In 2002, of some 7,720 km (4,797 mi) of roads, only 830 km (516 mi) were paved. There were only three paved highways, from Nouakchott north to Akjoujt and south to Rosso, continuing to Saint-Louis, Senegal. A 1,000-km (620-mi) east–west road between Nouakchott and Néma, started in 1975, was completed in 1985. A track continues north from Akjoujt to Bir Mogreïn, then branches northwest into Western Sahara and northeast into Algeria. Mauritania had about 11,450 passenger cars and 6,850 commercial vehicles in 2003.

As of 2004, Mauritania had 717 km (446-mi) of railway, all of it standard gauge, which linked the iron mines at Zouérate, near Fdérik, with the port at Point-Central, 10 km (6 mi) south of Nouadhibou. A 40-km (24-mi) spur was built in 1981 to accommodate the planned new mine at El-Rhein. There is a wharf at Nouakchott; work on the construction of a deepwater port, financed by China, was completed in 1986. This "Port of Friendship" is the main commercial port and receives about 90% of imported goods. Nouadhibou, also a port, underwent extensive reconstruction, restoration, and equipment renewal in 1991. Other important ports and harbors include Bogue, Kaedi, and Rosso. The Senegal River offers over 220 km (137 mi) of year-round transport.

In 2004, there were an estimated 24 airports, 8 of which had paved runways as of 2005. The only airports that can handle long-distance jets are at Nouakchott and Nouadhibou. There are smaller airports at Ayoûn-el-'Atroûs, Akjoujt, Atar, Fdérik, Kaédi, Kifa, and Néma. Air Mauritanie (60% state owned) provides domestic flights as well as service to the Canary Islands and Senegal. The multinational Air Afrique also operates within Mauritania. In 2003, about 116,000 passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international airline flights.

HISTORY

Tens of thousands of years ago, the Sahara was both lush and filled with game. Desiccation eventually forced the inhabitants southward, a process that in the 3rd and 4th centuries ad was speeded by the Berbers, who had domesticated the camel. As the Berbers pressed down from the north toward the Senegal River valley, black Africans who lived in the path of the invaders moved further to the south. From the 9th century, a Berber tribe, the Lamtuna, and two other Berber groups cooperated in the control of a thriving caravan trade in gold, slaves, and ivory from the south. They took desert salt and north African goods in exchange.

The Almoravids, a group of fervent Muslim Mauritanian Berbers conquered northwest Africa and much of Spain in the 11th century. They had, in turns, hostile and peaceful trade relations with the black African empire of Ghana. Their authority in the Mauritanian region had declined by the late 11th century. After the Almoravid empire was destroyed in the 12th century, the Mali kingdom, successor to Ghana, extended over southeastern Mauritania and dominated trade in the area. Later Mali was succeeded by the Songhai of Gao, whose empire fell to Moroccan invaders in 1591. Meanwhile, during the 14th and 15th centuries, nomadic Arab tribes of Yemeni extraction, the Banu Maqil, moved into Mauritania. By the 17th century, they had been able to establish complete dominance over the Berbers. They called themselves the Awlad-Banu Hassan. The Arabs and Berbers in Mauritania have since thoroughly intermingled with an Arabized Mauritania.

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive, attracted in the 15th century by the trade in gold and slaves; later, the gum arabic trade became important. Competition for control was keen among Portuguese, French, Dutch, and English traders. The issue was resolved in 1815 when Senegal was awarded to France in the post-Napoleonic war settlement. During the 19th century, the French explored the inland regions and signed treaties with Moorish chieftains. Penetration of the desert zone was accelerated around the turn of the century in attempts to thwart Moorish raids on the Senegal River tribes. A Frenchman, Xavier Coppolani, was responsible for the signing of many treaties, and played a key role in the extension of French influence in the area. By 1903, he was in control of Trarza, the Moors' main base for raids on the river tribes. Coppolani was killed in 1905, but his work was completed by Gen. Henri Gouraud, who gained effective control of the Adrar region by 1909. Mauritania was established as a colony in 1920, but its capital was located at Saint-Louis in Senegal. Mauritania thus became one of the eight territories that constituted the French West Africa federation.

In 1946 a Mauritanian Territorial Assembly was established, with some control over internal affairs. During the next 12 years, political power increasingly passed to local political leaders. Mauritania voted for the constitution of the Fifth French Republic at the referendum of 28 September 1958; it thus became a self-governing member of the French Community. The Islamic Republic of Mauritania was proclaimed in November 1958, while complete independence was attained on 28 November 1960.

Since independence, Mauritania has experienced three successful coups in up to 10 attempts. The grounds for these lay in part in the human and civil rights abuses committed by the government. The black minority, located largely in the south, has staged antidiscrimination protests and campaigned against slavery in Mauritania. Officially, slavery has been banned since 1981; but a law that makes slavery a punishable offence has yet to be implemented. As of 2006, the government had not gone forward with a ceremony at which hundreds of slaves were to be set free under an arrangement supported by international antislavery organizations.

In foreign affairs, the government has turned increasingly toward the Arab world. Mauritania joined the Arab League in 1973 and withdrew from the franc zone during the same year; but ties with Europe, especially France, and the United States remain strong. The disastrous drought that struck Mauritania and the rest of the Sahel region during 1968–74 elicited substantial aid from the EC, the United States, Spain, France, and the Arab countries.

On 14 November 1975, the governments of Spain, Morocco, and Mauritania reached an agreement whereby Spain agreed to abandon control of the Spanish Sahara by 28 February 1976 and to share administration of the territory until then with Morocco and Mauritania. On 14 April 1976, Morocco and Mauritania announced a border delimitation agreement under which Morocco received more than two-thirds of the region (including the areas with the richest phosphate deposits). Morocco in effect annexed Western Sahara.

Morocco's action drew condemnation from across the world. The Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia al-Hamra and Río de Oro (generally known as Polisario) even proclaimed Western Sahara as the Saharan Arab Democratic Republic. When Polisario forces, supported by Algeria, launched a war in the region, guerrilla raids on the Mauritanian railway, iron mines, and coastal settlements, including Nouakchott, forced Mauritania to call French and Moroccan troops to its defense. The effects of the war weakened the government both economically and politically, and in July 1978, Moktar Ould Daddah, Mauritania's president since 1961, was overthrown by a military coup. On 5 August 1979, Mauritania formally relinquished its portion of the disputed territory, except for the military base of LaGuera, near Nouadhibou. Morocco also occupied and then annexed that (Mauritania's) portion of the territory. Mauritania thereafter pursued a policy of strict neutrality in the Morocco-Polisario conflict, a policy that strained relations with Morocco.

In the wake of the 1978 coup, the constitution was suspended and the National Assembly and the ruling Mauritanian People's Party (PPM) were dissolved. After a period of political uncertainty, Lt. Col. Khouna Ould Haydalla became chief of state and chairman of the ruling Military Committee for National Salvation as of 4 January 1980. There were unsuccessful attempts to overthrow his government in 1981 and 1982. Amnesty International claimed in 1983 that more than 100 political prisoners, including a former president and former prime minister, were being held in total darkness in underground cells in the desert. These prisoners were freed shortly after a military coup on 12 December 1984 brought Col. Moaouia Ould Sidi Mohamed Taya to power as chief of state.

However, as the economy faltered, racial, ethnic, and class tensions increased and the society became polarized. The lines were drawn between the Maurs or Moors—aristocrats who have dominated government—and black African slaves or descendents of slaves, who have adopted Moorish culture, but remain second-class citizens on the other. Although the government refuses to release census data, it is estimated that Moors account for 30–60% of the population. The black population, which is concentrated along the Senegal River border, has organized an underground Front for the Liberation of Africans in Mauritania (FLAM); grievances were linked with an unsuccessful coup attempt in 1987.

Interethnic hostilities in 1989 exploded when a border dispute with Senegal led to race riots that left several hundred Senegalese dead in Nouackchott. The Moorish trading community in Senegal was targeted for retaliation. Thousands of refugees streamed across the border in both directions. Mass deportation of "Mauritanians of Senegalese origin" fueled charges that Mauritania was trying to eliminate its non-Moorish population. Africa Watch estimated that at least 100,000 black slaves were being held in Mauritania.

Against this backdrop, the military conducted a bloody purge from September 1990 through March 1991 during which some 500 mostly black soldiers were murdered. Taya legalized opposition parties in July 1991, but he also stepped up Arabization policies. Parliament granted the perpetrators of the purge legal immunity in May 1993.

On 26 January 1992, Taya was elected in Mauritania's first multiparty presidential election with 63% of the vote. Ahmed Ould Daddah, the strongest of the four rivals and half-brother of Mauritania's first president, gained 33% of the vote. However, the election was marked by fraud. The legislative elections that followed in March were boycotted by 6 of the 14 opposition parties. Taya's Democratic and Social Republican Party (PRDS) easily won 67 of 79 Assembly seats.

Multiparty municipal elections were held in 1994, and the PRDS won control of 172 of the nation's 208 administrative districts. Presidential elections were held on 12 December 1997. Main opposition parties claimed that campaign conditions favored the reelection of Taya to a second six-year term and called for a boycott of the elections. Kane Amadou Moctar, the first black African ever to run for the presidency, presented himself as a nonaligned candidate with a platform promising to fight slavery, assist the return of Mauritanian refugees from Senegal, and reform the fisheries policy. The elections took place without incident and Taya was declared the winner, taking 90% of the votes. Turnout was estimated at 70%, despite the opposition boycott. Moctar received less than 1% of the vote. Opposition leaders described the poll as a "masquerade," citing reports of widespread irregularities that included children casting ballots and polls remaining open as late as 11 pm.

Elections were held in April 1998 for 18 of the Senate's 56 seats. The PRDS won 17 of the 18 contested seats, with an independent gaining the remaining seat. In January 1999 the PRDS again won most of the 208 districts contested in municipal elections, though it is estimated that only 16% of the registered votes went to the polls.

Despite multiparty elections, Mauritania is far from a free society. Opposition politicians are harassed and arrested. In 1994 and again in 1998, Cheikh Sadibou Camara of the UDP was arrested for suggesting that the slave trade was continuing—publicly stating the suggestion is considered a crime in the country. Anti-Slavery International, based in London, presented an annual antislavery award to Camara in November 1998. The government also harasses journalists and has suspended publication of newspapers and magazines on numerous occasions in recent years. Since 1993, Mauritania has been denied US trade privileges because of its poor human rights record. Ahmed Ould Daddah had continued to confront the Taya regime; he was arrested in April 2000 but was released a few days later without charges. In May 2000 demonstrations by opposition parties in Nouakchott demanded an independent electoral commission.

Despite opposition protests, the PRDS has maintained its monopoly on power in the Senate and in the National Assembly. In Senate elections held 12 April 2002, the PRDS maintained its commanding majority of 54 seats to 1 for the RFD, and 1 for the UNDD. In National Assembly elections held 19 and 26 October 2001 (next to be held 2006), the PRDS garnered 79% of the vote, compared to 3.5% for the RDU, 3.5% for the UDP, 5% for the AC, 4% for the RDF, 3.5% for the UFP, and 1.5% for the FP. The breakdown by number of seats was as follows: PRDS 64, UDP 3, RDU 3, AC 4, RFD 3, UFP 3, and FP 1. The 2001 Assembly elections were generally considered free and fair by outside observers, but were subject to the usual incumbent advantages in sub-Saharan Africa.

In June 2003, the government was dealing with a coup attempt that nearly overthrew Taya. As many as 40 people were injured and six killed in two days of heavy fighting in the capital on 8–9 June. Sala Ould Henena, who was fired from the army because of his opposition to the government's ties with Israel, was accused of leading former and mid-ranking army officers in the putsch. In response to the coup, the United States sent a 34-member military assessment team to Nouakchott to analyze US Embassy security needs. Analysts suspected that the cabal may have been provoked by a government crackdown earlier in the month against 32 Islamic leaders for their alleged ties to a foreign network of Islamic extremists and to former Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein.

In presidential elections held in 2003, Taya won reelection for a third term with 60.8% of the vote. But the opposition claimed that massive fraud marred the vote. There was little doubt though that Taya had been attracting opposition from among key segments of the population. In 1999, Mauritania became only the third Arab League state to establish full diplomatic relations with Israel. Taya's links to Israel and his pro-Western, pro-US foreign policy had come under increasing criticism in the largely Muslim country. In September 2004, the government alleged yet another coup plot—the third in 15 months. In June 2005, an attack on an army base in the Sahara left 15 soldiers dead; it was blamed on insurgents from Algeria. All this seems to lend credence to allegations that Taya had been insensitive to the desires of Mauritanians, or that he had become too arrogant and too powerful to be bothered by what people thought about his government.

Thus, when Taya was deposed by a military coup on 3 August 2005, there was no public protest in his support. Dancing was reported on the streets of Nouakchott. On the other hand, opposition politicians welcomed the change; but they also vowed to intensify their watchdog function. Col. Ely Ould Mohamed Vall became chief of state and head of the new Military Council for Justice and Democracy. Col. Vall also promised to return to a constitutional order within two years, and vowed that no member of his caretaker administration would seek elective posts. Elections to the National Assembly were scheduled for November 2006, and to the Senate in January 2007. Presidential elections were scheduled for March 2007.

GOVERNMENT

The constitution of 20 May 1961 declared Mauritania to be an Islamic republic. This constitution, which placed effective power in the hands of a president who was also head of the only legal political organization, the Mauritanian People's Party, was suspended in 1978 by the new military regime. Subsequently, executive and legislative powers were vested in the Military Committee for National Salvation. A draft constitution was published in 1980 but later abandoned; like the 1961 document, it called for a popularly elected president and National Assembly.

The July 1991 constitution delegates most powers to the executive. The president is to be elected by universal suffrage for a six-year term. The prime minister is appointed by the president and designated head of government. Parliament is composed of a bicameral legislature. The Senate, or Majlis al-Shuyukh, has 56 seats with 17 up for election every two years. Its members are elected by municipal leaders to serve six-year terms. The National Assembly, or Majlis al-Watani, has 79 seats with members elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms. These institutions pose no serious challenge and, moreover, are controlled by the president's party, although competing political parties were legalized in July 1991.

Since 2005, the military has controlled the levers of power, although in apparent consultation with politicians. On current reckoning, elections due from late 2006 through early 2007 might return politics and government in Mauritania to the democratic path. But a change in the transition time-table cannot be ruled out.

POLITICAL PARTIES

As elsewhere in French West Africa, formal political movements developed in Mauritania only after World War II. Horma Ould Babana, the leader of the first party to be established, the Mauritanian Entente, was elected to the French National Assembly in 1946. His party was considered too radical by the traditional chiefs, who organized a more conservative party, the Mauritanian Progressive Union (UPM). The UPM won 22 of 24 seats in the 1952 elections for the Territorial Assembly. In the 1957 elections, the first under universal adult suffrage, 33 of 34 persons elected to the Territorial Assembly were UPM members. In 1958, the UPM absorbed the weakened Entente into its organization, forming a single party, the Mauritanian Regroupment Party (PRM).

After independence, Prime Minister Moktar Ould Daddah in May 1961 set up a presidential system of government, and in the subsequent presidential election he was the only candidate. In December 1961, a new single party was formed, the Hizb Shab, or Mauritanian People's Party (Parti du Peuple Mauritanien—PPM). The PPM included minority parties as well as the PRM. By 1965, the single-party system had been established by law. President Ould Daddah was reelected in 1966, 1971, and 1976, but the PPM was dissolved after his ouster in 1978. No political parties functioned openly from 1978 until the 1991 military coup.

The Front for the Liberation of Africans in Mauritania (FLAM) was instrumental in stirring the 1989 unrest that ultimately led to multiparty elections. During this period of partisan organization, Taya formed the Democratic and Social Republican Party (Parti Republicain et Democratique Social—PRDS).

Chief among some 14 opposition parties has been the Union of Democratic Forces (UFD), which supported the runner-up in the January 1992 presidential election and boycotted the March parliamentary election. In May 1992, the UFD changed its name to UFD-New Era. In March 1993, it was weakened by the departure of eight centrist leaders to form a new political grouping. Also active are the Rally for Democratic and National Unity (RDU), the Union for Progress and Democracy (UPD), the Mauritanian Renewal Party (PMR), the People's Progressive Party (PPP), the Socialist and Democratic People's Union (SDPU), the Democratic Center Party (DCP), the Popular Front (FP), and El Har, a 1994 splintering of the UFD-New Era. The technically illegal Islamist party, Ummah, is very popular. The Action for Change (AC) party, which held four seats in the National Assembly following the October 2001 elections, was banned in January 2002.

After Taya won reelection in 2003, the Assembly was overwhelmingly dominated by his party, the PRDS. Since Col. Vall took power, opposition politicians appear to have become more involved, at least indirectly, in public decision making. For many years following 1998, Cheikh El Avia Ould Mohamed Khouna served as prime minister. On 8 August 2005 Sidi Mohamed Ould Boukakar became prime minister.

The Party of Democratic Convergence was banned in October 2005 because it was regarded as having breached Mauritanian law.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Mauritania is divided into the city of Nouakchott and 12 regions, each with a governor and a commission. The regions are subdivided into 49 departments. Elections to municipal councils were held in December 1986 and again in 1992. The January–February 1994 municipal elections led to PRDS control of around 170 of the 208 municipalities, a majority retained by the PRDS in 1999.

Local elections were held in 2001. But the polls were marred as much by opposition boycott as by charges of massive fraud. All results for Nouakchott were annulled and a rerun ordered—although the reasons for such action remained unclear, given the boycott by opposition.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The 1991 constitution completely revised the judicial system, which had previously consisted of a lower court in Nouakchott, labor and military courts, a security court, and a Supreme Court in addition to qadi courts, which handled family law cases.

The revised judicial system includes lower, middle, and upper level courts, each with specialized jurisdiction. The security court was abolished, and 43 department-level tribunals now bridge the traditional (qadi ) and modern court systems. These courts are staffed by qadis or traditional magistrates trained in Koranic law. General civil cases are handled by 10 regional courts of first instance. Three regional courts of appeal hear challenges to decisions at the department level. A Supreme Court, headed by a magistrate named by the president to a five-year term, reviews appeals taken from decisions of the regional courts of appeal.

The 1991 constitution also established a six-member constitutional court, three members of which are named by the president, two by the national assembly president, and one by the senate president.

While the judiciary is nominally independent, it is subject to pressure and influence by the executive, which controls the appointment and dismissal of judges. The system is strongly influenced by rulings and settlements of tribal elders based on Shariah and tribal regulations.

The Codes of Civil and Criminal Procedure were revised in 1993 to bring them into line with the guarantees of the 1991 constitution, which provides for due process of law.

ARMED FORCES

In 2005 the active armed forces of Mauritania numbered 15,870. The Army had 15,000 personnel armed with 35 main battle tanks, 70 reconnaissance vehicles, 25 armored personnel carriers, and 194 artillery pieces. The Navy had an estimated 650 active personnel. Major naval units consisted of 10 patrol/coastal vessels. The nation's Air Force had 250 active memembers. The aircraft inventory was limited to 2 reconnaissance, 12 transport, and 4 training aircraft. Paramilitary personnel numbered an estimated 5,000 personnel, with 3,000 in the gendarmerie and 2000 in the National Guard. The defense budget in 2005 totaled $20.1 million.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Admitted to the United Nations on 27 October 1961, Mauritania is a member of ECA and several nonregional specialized agencies, such as the FAO, IFC, IMF, the World Bank, UNESCO, UNIDO, and the WHO. It is also a member of the ACP Group, the Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa, African Development Bank, the Council of Arab Economic Unity, the Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development, the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), G-77, the Arab League, the African Union, the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD), the Arab Maghreb Union, and the WTO. Mauritania has joined with Senegal and Mali to form the Organization for the Development of the Senegal River (Organisation pour la Mise en Valeur du Fleuve Sénégal—OMVS). Mauritania is a member of the Nonaligned Movement.

In environmental cooperation, Mauritania is part of the Basel Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, Ramsar, CITES, the Montréal Protocol, MARPOL, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change and Desertification.

The country is also a member with neighboring states of the Interstate Committee to Combat Drought in the Sahel (CILSS).

ECONOMY

While Mauritania is an agricultural country, historically largely dependent on livestock production, its significant iron ore deposits have been the backbone of the export economy in recent years. The droughts of the 1970s and 1980s transformed much of Mauritania, as the herds died off and the population shifted to urban areas. In 1960, 85% of the population lived as nomadic herders. By 1999, that percentage had fallen to 5%, and nearly one-third of the population lives in the district of Nouakchott. Offshore oil reserves have been identified and are estimated at one billion barrels. Substantial oil production and exports were expected to begin in 2006 and were projected to average 75,000 barrels per day for that year. Gold and diamond prospecting hold potential as growth areas.

Most of Mauritania is desert or semiarid. Less than 1% of Mauritania receives sufficient rain for crop production, and that 1% is drought-prone. Leading staple crops are millet, sorghum, rice, corn, sweet potatoes and yams, pulses, and dates. The country is not agriculturally self-sufficient and this situation has been aggravated by increasing urbanization.

In 2006, iron ore sales accounted for approximately 40% of exports. Fish exports account for 60% of foreign earnings. The contribution of livestock herding and agriculture was 25% of GDP and employed about half of the workforce in 2001, but covered only a small percentage of the country's needs. The droughts of the 1970s and 1980s devastated the herds, but the FAO estimates that they had returned to pre-drought numbers by 1991. The recomposition of the Mauritanian herd and the development of water supplies have been a prime objective of the government.

The droughts have led to a buildup of foreign debt leaving the country dependent on financial aid flows from international donors. Mauritania became eligible for debt relief under the IMF/World Bank's Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative in 2000, and debt service relief reached $1.1 billion by 2002, which almost halved Mauritania's debt burden. Foreign assistance accounted for 90% of investment from 1998–2001. In 2005 the GDP growth rate was estimated at 5.5%.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Mauritania's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $6.2 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $2,000. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 5.5%. The average inflation rate in 2003 was 7%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 25% of GDP, industry 29%, and services 46%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $2 million or about $1 per capita and accounted for approximately 0.2% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $243 million or about $85 per capita and accounted for approximately 20.9% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Mauritania totaled $852 million or about $299 per capita based on a GDP of $1.2 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 4.1%. It was estimated that in 2004 about 40% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

The estimated labor force in Mauritania numbered 786,000 in 2001. In that year it was estimated that agriculture provided work for 50% of the labor force, with services accounting for 40% and 10% by industry. In 2004, the estimated unemployment rate was 20%.

Trade unions are grouped into three federations, of which the oldest is the Union of Mauritanian Workers (Union des Travailleurs de Mauritanie), which is affiliated with the ICFTU. The newer ones are the General Confederation of Mauritanian Workers, formed in 1994, and the Free Confederation of Mauritanian Workers. Approximately 90% of the formal segment of the economy is unionized. The right to strike is guaranteed by law. Collective bargaining is also permitted.

Children under the age of 14 are prohibited by law from engaging in nonagricultural work. In practice this regulation is not enforced. The guaranteed minimum workweek for most nonagricultural laborers is 40 hours with guaranteed overtime pay. However, domestic employees may work for up to 56 hours per week. The minimum wage was $38.71 per month in 2002 for adult workers. There are minimum occupational health and safety standards, but they are inadequately enforced due to a lack of government funding.

AGRICULTURE

Settled agriculture is restricted to the strip of land along the Senegal River and to oases in the north; only 0.2% of Mauritania's total land area is classified as arable. In general, landholdings are small. Overall agricultural development has been hampered not only by unfavorable physical conditions but also by a complicated land-tenure system (modified in 1984) that traditionally rested on slavery, inadequate transportation, and the low priority placed on agriculture by most government developmental plans. The country's traditional dependence on food imports has been heightened by drought. Agriculture's share of GDP has been steadily falling; in 2003 it stood at 19%, down from 29% in 1987.

Corn and sorghum production reached 6,000 and 68,000 tons, respectively, in 2004. Other crop production in 2004 included paddy rice, 77,000 tons; and millet, 400 tons. Date production was 24,000 tons in 2004.

The Mauritanian government is encouraging agricultural development of the Senegal River valley. The OMVS began in 1981 to build a dam at Manantali, in Mali, for purposes of river transport, irrigation, and hydroelectric power. In conjunction with this OMVS project, Mauritania initiated an irrigation and development scheme in 1975 for the Gorgol River valley, involving construction of a dam; the scheme would increase arable land by over 3,600 hectares (9,000 acres). This project was to be followed by other dams that together would add 30,000 hectares (74,100 acres) for food production. Another OMVS project, begun in 1981, was designed to block salt water from entering the fertile Senegal River delta. From 1989 to 1991, a series of measures aimed at stimulation and rationalization of agricultural production were initiated, including producer price increases, marketing and distribution liberalization, and streamlining of government-owned agricultural organizations.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Animal husbandry, a major activity in the traditional economy, grew rapidly during the 1960s because of a successful animal health campaign and, prior to 1968, favorable weather conditions. Indeed, cattle herds grew well beyond the number that could be supported by the natural vegetation. Thus, the land was already vulnerable when the drought years of 1968–74 reduced the cattle population from 2.6 million head in 1970 to 1.6 million in 1973. There were only 1.6 million head in 2005, while sheep and goats numbered 14.5 million and camels 1.3 million.

The Moors tend to regard their cattle as symbols of wealth and prestige; this attitude discourages the herders from selling or slaughtering the animals. Total meat production in 2005 was estimated at 89,349 tons, with mutton accounting for 28% and beef for 26%. Reported figures are incomplete, however, since animal smuggling is common and much trade is unrecorded.

FISHING

With a potential catch of 600,000 tons, fishing employs 1.2% of the labor force and contributes about 5% to GDP. It is estimated that more than $1 billion worth of fish is netted each year within the 320-km (200-mi) exclusive economic zone, but little of this sum benefits the treasury because the government lacks means of control and enforcement.

Since 1980, any foreigners wishing to fish in Mauritanian waters have been required by law to form a joint venture in which Mauritanian citizens or the government holds at least 51% of the capital. All of the catch must be landed in Mauritania for process and export, and each joint venture must establish an onshore processing facility. By 1987, over a dozen fishing companies had been established in Nouadhibou, including public and private interests from Algeria, France, Iraq, the Republic of Korea, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Romania, Spain, and the former USSR. In May 1987, Mauritania signed a three-year fishing agreement with the EC, allowing all EC members to fish in Mauritanian waters; in return, Mauritania received approximately $23 million. Since the mid-1980s, however, depletion of the stocks has made Mauritanian fishing increasingly uneconomical. Mauritania's boats have been in poor condition. In spite of the ship repair service in Nouadhibou, which opened in 1989, only about 50% of the fleet was up and running in 1992.

Traditional fishing is carried out along the Senegal River and traditional sea fishing at Nouakchott and Nouadhibou. The national catch was estimated at 80,000 tons in 2003. Principal species caught included octopus, sardine, squid, and hake. Exports of fish products were valued at $103.4 million in 2003.

FORESTRY

Sizable tree stands found in the southern regions are not fully exploited. The principal forest product is gum arabic, which is extracted from wild acacia trees that grow in the south. Until 1972, private traders collected and exported the gum; since 1972, it has officially been a monopoly of the state trading company, Société Nationale d'Importation et d'Exportation (SONIMEX). Nevertheless, much gum continues to be smuggled across the borders, particularly to Senegal. Roundwood removals were estimated at 1.6 million cu m (56 million cu ft) in 2004, 99% for fuel.

MINING

Iron ore mining and processing accounted for more than 44% of Mauritania's export earnings in 2003, which totaled $388 million. Iron ore output (metal content) was estimated at 6.9 million metric tons in 2003. Iron ore production by gross weight that same year totaled 10.6 million metric tons.

Gypsum output, from some of the greatest reserves in the world, was estimated at 100,000 metric tons in 2003. In 2003, Mauritania also produced cement, salt, crude steel, sand and gravel, and stone. Mauritania was rich in copper; in the 1980s, the mine at Akjoujt was estimated to contain 100 million tons of ore averaging 2.25% copper, with trace amounts of gold. In 1996, gold recovery from tailings at the mine was discontinued because the stockpile was depleted. The nearby Guelb Moghrein Project, which contained resources of 23.7 million tons (144 grams per ton of cobalt, 1.88% copper, and 1.41 grams per ton of gold), continued to be delayed, because of low gold and copper prices, and problems at the pilot plant. Phosphate deposits, and reserves of platinum, palladium, and nickel, have been identified, and prospecting continued for petroleum, tungsten, and uranium. Mineral exploration efforts were focused on diamond (on the Archean Reguibat craton), gold (in the Inchiri region), oil (offshore), and continued evaluation of copper-gold, kaolin, and peat deposits.

ENERGY AND POWER

Mauritania, as of 1 January 2005, had no proven reserves of crude oil, natural gas, coal, or petroleum refining capacity. But this may change in 2006. Mauritania's Chinguetti oilfield, discovered in 2001, is estimated to have reserves of 100 million barrels. In addition, the country has a number of other offshore gas and oil fields that are seen as promising.

In 2002, Mauritania imported and consumed an average of 22,750 barrels per day of refined oil products. There was no recorded demand for coal or natural gas in that same year.

Electric power is the country's primary energy source. In 2002, installed generating capacity was 115,000 kW, of which 56.5% of capacity was dedicated to hydropower, and the rest to conventional thermal sources. In 2002, electric output totaled 174 million kWh, of which almost 85% was generated by conventional thermal plants, with hydroelectric facilities accounting for the remainder. Consumption of electricity in 2002 came to 162 million kWh.

INDUSTRY

Fish processing, the principal industrial activity, is carried out in Nouadhibou. By far the largest fish processor is Mauritanian Fish Industries (IMAPEC), a Spanish company in which the Mauritanian government acquired a 51% share in 1980. IMAPEC has facilities for salting, drying, canning, and freezing fish, and for producing fish flour; virtually all of its output is exported. Overfishing is a problem, however, as is mismanagement of the fishing sector and the lack of an effective governmental fisheries policy. The government is modernizing the fisheries sector, through port extension and the development of warehouses. Other small industries include chemical and plastic plants, food and beverages, metal products, building materials, and cookie factories.

The first desalination plant in Africa was completed at Nouakchott in January 1969, with a capacity of 3,000 cu m (106,000 cu ft) a day. A rolling mill at Nouadhibou, built in 1977, produced small quantities of iron rods and steel. A petroleum refinery in Nouadhibou, with an annual capacity of 1 million tons, opened in 1982, shut down in 1983, and resumed operation in 1987 with help from Algeria. Algeria also helped revitalize a sugar refining plant. Similarly, Kuwaiti and Jordanian interests reopened the steel mill after a shutdown. Each of these operations represents a drain on state revenues, and the government has shifted policy toward the promotion of less ambitious industrial development.

The government has signed exploration contracts with the Canadian Rex Diamond Mining Corporation, the American BHP Minerals and Bab-Co, the French La Source, and the Australian Ashton West Africa Property Limited in order to find gold, oil, phosphate, aluminum, and copper in Mauritania. Mauritania as of 2006 had an estimated one billion barrels of proven oil reserves. A national oil company, GPC, was created in 2004. Mauritania is one of four countries in West Africa with an operating oil refinery.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

A research institute for mining and geology, founded in 1968, is at Nouakchott. The Economic Community of West Africa has an institute in Nouadhibou-Cansado conducting research in the fisheries industry. The Higher Scientific Institute, founded in 1986 at Nouakchott, has departments of mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, geology, computer studies, natural resources, and ecology. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 41% of college and university enrollments.

DOMESTIC TRADE

Most trade is done at or near the "Friendship Port" of Nouakchott. The seaport of Nouadhibou is a main center for fishing operations. Most consumer goods are sold through small shops or boutiques, although some medium-sized supermarkets are becoming more common. There are a number of small and medium-sized family-owned retail and wholesale firms. Private exchange offices were created in 1994 and 1995. A new investment code put into place in 2001 is expected to attract foreign investment. Arabic is the official language, but French is the business language. Normal business and banking hours are from 7:30 am to 3 pm, Sunday through Thursday, though it is somewhat common for businesses to open a little later in the morning than scheduled.

FOREIGN TRADE

Iron ore and fish products are the primary exports (98% of export revenue in 2005). The leading imports are foodstuffs, consumer goods, petroleum products, and capital goods. In 2004, Mauritania's principal export partners were: Japan (13.1%), France (11%), Spain (9.7%), Germany (9.7%), Italy (9.6%), Belgium (7.5%), China (6.1%), Russia (4.6%), and Côte d'Ivoire (4.1%). Principal import partners that year were: France (14.1%), the United States

Country	Exports	Imports	Balance
World	347.9	373.5	-25.6
France-Monaco	67.0	106.2	-39.2
Italy-San Marino-Holy See	61.0	29.1	31.9
Spain	53.8	16.4	37.4
Belgium	42.4	29.3	13.1
Japan	31.1	8.7	22.4
Areas nes	27.8	125.3	-97.5
Germany	25.5	23.0	2.5
Nigeria	15.8	…	15.8
Russia	12.2	…	12.2
United Kingdom	7.2	…	7.2
(…) data not available or not significant.

Current Account			77.2
Balance on goods		40.0
Imports	-318.7
Exports	358.6
Balance on services		-118.5
Balance on income		-31.5
Current transfers		187.5
Capital Account			…
Financial Account			-25.9
Direct investment abroad		…
Direct investment in Mauritania		0.1
Portfolio investment assets		…
Portfolio investment liabilities		-0.4
Financial derivatives		…
Other investment assets		190.1
Other investment liabilities		-215.7
Net Errors and Omissions			-8.1
Reserves and Related Items			-43.2
(…) data not available or not significant.

(7.6%), China (6.4%), Spain (5.8%), the United Kingdom (4.6%), Germany (4.3%), and Belgium (4.2%).

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

An external debt of $2.6 billion in 1998 resulted in debt servicing that rose 38.5% from 1997 to 1998, causing a leap in the balance of payments deficit. External trade increased in the late 1990s, due to the creation of private exchange offices and the liberalization of exchange systems. Foreign investment began to resume as well. The country's outstanding foreign debt in 2000 was estimated at 220% of GDP, but due to debt cancellation and rescheduling, debt service payment problems were somewhat alleviated. Mauritania's external debt had declined to $1.6 billion by 2000. In the same year, Mauritania qualified for $1.1 billion in debt service relief from the IMF/World Bank Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative, and in 2001 it received strong support from donor and lending countries. In 2002, Mauritania received $305.7 million in economic aid from donor countries. In 2003, the IMF approved a three-year $8.8 million loan to the country. In 2005, exports were valued at an estimated $784 million, and imports at $1.124 billion.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

At independence, Mauritania became a member of the West African Monetary Union (Union Monétaire Ouest Africaine—UMOA), but withdrew in 1973 to demonstrate its independent economic identity. When it withdrew, the government also relinquished membership in the African Financial Community (Communauté Financière Africaine—CFA), whose currency—the CFA franc—was freely convertible to French francs. Mauritania then created its own currency, the ouguiya, and a national bank, the Central Bank of Mauritania (Banque Centrale de Mauritanie), which was established in 1973.

After privatization in 1989, banks in Mauritania included Banque Arbe Libyene-Mauritanienne pour le Commerce Extérieur et le Développement (BALM). BALM, founded in 1990, was 51% owned by Libyans and 49% owned by the state. Other banks included Banque Al-Baraka Mauritanie Islamique (BAMIS), Banque Mauritanie pour le Commerce Internationale (BMCI), and Banque Nationale de Mauritania (BNM). BAMIS, established in 1990, was 50% Saudi owned and 10% BCM owned. BMCI, founded in 1990, was 10% BCM owned, and 90% of the bank was held by private interests. BNM, established in 1988, was 50% state owned.

In 2001, there were seven commercial banks, among them BAMIS, BMCI, BNM, Generale de Banque de Mauritanie (GBM), and the World Bank Representative in Mauritania. There are also three credit agencies and four insurance companies. The Saudi Al-Baraka firm owned 85% of BAMIS and the Belgium Belgolaise bank was the second-largest shareholder in commercial banks. There was also one bank specializing in housing construction and three credit agencies (Credit Maritime, Credit Agricole, and Mauritanie Leasing).

A significant drawback for the Mauritanian economy, partly due to the small number and low income of the population, was a dearth of domestic capital. The poor reputation of the domestic banking system, notwithstanding its recent overhaul, discouraged local savings. In 1997, the government encouraged the creation of popular saving agencies to revitalize the financial sector; and in 1998, the government introduced incentives to encourage fish exporters to keep their assets in the country. The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $108.6 million. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $151.4 million.

INSURANCE

Insurance was handled by 13 foreign companies until July 1974 when the Mauritanian government assumed full control of insurance and reinsurance. All insurance business was controlled by the Mauritanian Insurance and Reinsurance Co. There were two insurance companies in 1999.

PUBLIC FINANCE

Mauritania's budget is habitually in deficit. Mismanagement of public enterprises and an abundance of public sector employees led to large deficits in the early 1980s. In 1985, the government began an IMF-sponsored adjustment program to stabilize the economy and diminish the role of the public sector. The overall fiscal cash deficit (excluding debt forgiveness) fell from 12% GDP in 1985 to 5.4% in 1989. From 1989 to 1992, however, due to the Persian Gulf Crisis and turmoil with Senegal, the adjustment effort was set back. In 1994, the government instituted fiscal reform designed to broaden the tax base and reduce exemptions. Goals in 1999 included increasing public revenues, decreasing spending, and increasing the performance of public companies. Privatization continued through the 1990s, and state-owned companies accounted for approximately 20% of GDP at the end of 1997.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2002 Mauritania's central government took in revenues of approximately $421 million and had expenditures of $378 million. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately $43 million. Total external debt was $2.5 billion.

TAXATION

Mauritania has a corporate income tax rate of 20%, with a 4% minimum rate on turnover. Capital gains are taxed at the corporate rate. However the tax may be deferred if the gains are used to acquire new fixed assets in the country in the following three fiscal years. Dividends are subject to a 10% withholding tax, which can be deducted if the recipient of the dividends is subject to corporate income tax. The major indirect taxes are import duties, a turnover tax on exports and mining companies, a value-added tax (VAT), excise levies on petroleum, tobacco, a service tax, and a tax on vehicles. As of 2005, the standard VAT rate was set at 14%. Wages and salaries are also subject to an income tax.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

Along with other members of the West African Economic Community (CEAO), Mauritania imposes a revenue duty (droit fiscal ) and a customs duty (droit de douane d'entrée ) on most imported goods. The average tax rate for imports was 43% in 1999. Customs duties ranged from a minimum of 9% to a maximum of 27% for essential goods or nonluxury goods. Imports are also subject to the 14% VAT. Exports were not restricted, although both imports and exports require a license. The government planned to reduce taxes on imports to an average of 25%, and was considering the creation of free trade zones.

Since 1970, Mauritania has had a trade agreement with Senegal, allowing primary products to be traded between the two countries duty-free. Mauritania is also a member of ECOWAS.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

With the nationalization of the mining sector in 1974, private foreign investment dropped drastically. Extension of government control over imports and domestic trade further curtailed the activity of foreign capital, as did ethnic clashes in 1989–91. In 1993, the government started to privatize parastatals, and by 1999, only 17% of GDP was accounted for by state-owned companies; 20% of Mauritanian companies were state-owned, including the telephone and postal services, utilities, transportation, radio and television, and mining production.

An investment code, approved in 1979, provided for tax holidays of up to 12 years on exports, imports of raw materials, and reinvested profits. The 1989 Investment Code guaranteed equal and free movement of capital in and out of Mauritania, in all sectors. It also provided incentives to new enterprises like a temporary tax reduction. Amendments have been made to the code to require hiring of Mauritanians. Tax preferences are offered for using local materials and investing in priority sectors, like agriculture, minerals, and fish processing.

Foreign investment has been small since the ethnic violence of 1989 to 1991. However, in 1999 the government introduced new initiatives to attract foreign investment. From 1997 to 1999, the average annual inflow of foreign direct investment (FDI) was negligible, ranging from $100,000 to $900,000. In 2000, inflows increased to $9.2 million and then, in 2001, to $30 million. Foreign private investors include Mobil Oil of the United States, NAFTAL of Algeria, and Elf Aquitaine of France, in the petroleum sector; MINPROC, IFC of Australia in the gold sector; and CNF of China, the Al-Baraka Group of Saudi Arabia, and IFAFOOD of France, in the fishing sector.

Foreign investment climbed from 2001–04, particularly in the petroleum, mining, and telecommunications sectors, as well as tourism (especially hotels). In 2003 the government introduced a new investment code, designed to encourage foreign investment as well as local entrepreneurs.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Until the export earning capacity of Mauritania improves, its economy will remain fragile. External deficit management dominates the public investment horizon. In 1999, Mauritania obtained financing from the IDA, AFESD, and World Bank, for its economic and social development projects. The IDA funded a mining sector capacity building project, with $500,000 cofinancing from the government. The AFESD gave an $11.6 million loan to upgrade and develop small dams. The World Bank approved a $15 million loan to support access to the country's mining sector.

In 2000, Mauritania was approved for $1.1 billion in debt service relief under the International Monetary Fund (IMF)/World Bank Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative. That year, the country withdrew its membership in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and increased commercial ties with Morocco and Tunisia (members of the Arab Maghreb Union), particularly in telecommunications. In 2003, the IMF approved an $8.8 million three-year Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) Arrangement, to support the government's economic reform policies geared to reduce poverty. The IMF stressed the need for banking and exchange rate reform, and improved governance.

As of 2006, the development of Mauritania's one billion barrels of proved petroleum reserves held promise for the economy. The government emphasized the reduction of poverty, improvement of health and education, and privatization of the economy as policy priorities.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

The National Social Security Fund administers family allowances, industrial accident benefits, insurance against occupational diseases, and old age pensions. Pensions are paid for by 1% contributions from employees and 2% contributions from employers. Employed women are entitled to a cash maternity benefit and payable up to 14 weeks. Workers and their families who are covered under the labor code are entitled to medical benefits. There is also a family allowance and a birth grant.

Opportunities for Mauritanian women are severely limited by social and cultural factors. Although they have the right to vote, women face considerable legal discrimination. According to Shariah law, the testimony in court of two women equals that of one man. The law mandates equal pay for equal work, and in the public sector, this law is respected and applied. Most young girls undergo female genital mutilation by the age of six months, although the incidence is decreasing among the urban population. Education is not compulsory and dire financial circumstances force many children to work. Laws prohibiting child labor are rarely enforced.

Slavery was abolished many times in Mauritania, the most recent law having been passed in 1980. Despite this, as of 2004 there are still slaves in the rural areas where a barter economy thrives. Some human rights abuses are reported including the use of excessive force to disperse demonstrators and inadequate prison conditions.

HEALTH

Mauritania's public health system consists of administrative units and health facilities organized in pyramid style. Total health care expenditure was estimated at 4.8% of GDP. In 2004, there were an estimated 14 physicians, 62 nurses, 2 dentists, 4 pharmacists, and 10 midwives per 100,000 people. In the mid-1990s, there were approximately 300 basic health units at the village level, about 130 health posts, and some 50 health centers. The health system is mostly public, but liberalization of private practice in the past several years has led to marked increase in the number of practitioners in the private sector. Mauritania's only major hospital is in Nouakchott. Only about 63% of the population had access to health care services. Private participation in the pharmaceutical sector has increased since 1987. Public facilities receive stocks from the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs. Drugs are distributed to patients at public facilities at no cost, but only 40% of demand can be met. Importation of narcotics is prohibited. Approximately 37% of the population had access to safe drinking water and 33% had adequate sanitation.

The main health problems include malaria, tuberculosis, measles, dysentery, and influenza. Guinea worm remains a major problem. Pregnancy complications are common due to unhygienic conditions and lack of medical care. In nondrought years, the staple diet of milk and millet is nutritionally adequate, if somewhat deficient in vitamin C. Immunization rates for children up to one year old were: tuberculosis, 93%; diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 50%; polio, 50%; and measles, 53%. The rates for DPT and measles were, respectively, 40% and 62%. Forty-four percent of children under five were malnourished. The goiter rate was 31 per 100 school-age children.

The average life expectancy is among the lowest in the world—an estimated 52.73 years in 2005. The fertility rate was 5.7 in 2000. Only 3% of married women aged 15–49 were using some form of contraceptive. As of 2002, the crude birth rate and overall mortality rate were estimated at, respectively, 42.54 and 13.34 per 1,000 people. The infant mortality rate was 70.89 per 1,000 live births in 2005. The maternal mortality rate was 550 per 100,000 live births. Twenty-five percent of women underwent female genital mutilation and no specific law has been issued against it.

As of 2004, there were approximately 9,500 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 0.60 per 100 adults in 2003.

HOUSING

Construction accounts for a small fraction of GDP. The chief construction company, the Building Society of Mauritania, is hampered by inadequate manpower and capitalization. To encourage housing development, the government introduced new regulations in 1975 to encourage builders and to compel civil servants to purchase their own property and thus relieve the demand for public housing. The phenomenal growth of Nouakchott and the effects of rural migration, impelled by drought, have strained housing resources. In 1998, over 25% of residents in Nouakchott lived in substandard housing, such as tents, huts, or shacks, as did about 35% of Kiffa residents and 44% of Aioun residents.

EDUCATION

Six years of basic education are compulsory. A three-year lower secondary (college) program offers general education. Following this stage, students may choose to attend a three-year senior secondary school (lycee ) or a technical school program of three or five years. The lycee programs offer specializations in arts and literature; natural sciences; mathematics, physics, and chemistry; or Koran (Quran) and Arabic studies. The academic year runs from October to June.

Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 68% of age-eligible students. In 2001, secondary school enrollment was about 14.5% of age-eligible students. It is estimated that about 42.9% of all students complete their primary education. The student-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 42:1 in 2000; the ratio for secondary school was about 26:1.

The National Institute of Higher Islamic Studies was established in Boutilimit in 1961 and the National School of Administration was founded in 1966 at Nouakchott. The University of Nouakchott, founded in 1981, has a faculty of letters and human sciences and a faculty of law and economics. In 2003, about 4% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in some type of higher education program. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 51.2%, with 59.5% for men and 43.4% for women.

As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 4.1% of GDP, or 16.6% of total government expenditures.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

The National Library at Nouakchott (10,000 volumes) and the National Archives (3,000) were both founded in 1955. The National Library is the depository for all the country's publications. There is a small library at the University of Nouakchott in the capital, as well as a French cultural center. The National Museum is also located in Nouakchott and has archaeology and ethnography collections. There are several Arab libraries in the major towns.

MEDIA

Many of Mauritania's post offices have telephone or telegraph services. There are direct telephone communications from Nouakchott to Paris. Administrative contact within the country is maintained by radiotelephone. Two earth-satellite stations came into service in 1985–86. In 2003, there were an estimated 14 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were approximately 128 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

The government operates all national radio and television networks, broadcasting in French, Arabic, and several African languages. In 2001 there were 1 AM and 14 FM radio stations, with 1 television station reported in 2002. Residents with satellite receivers and dish antennas receive television broadcasts from France and other Arab countries. Telecasts are in French and Arabic. In 2003, there were an estimated 148 radios and 44 television sets for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were 10.8 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 4 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet.

In 2004 there were about 25 privately owned newspapers with a regular publication schedule, usually weekly. A government-operated daily, Ach Chabb, is published in French and Arabic. Horizon, another government daily, is published in French.

The constitution provides for freedom of speech and the press; however, by law copies of every newspaper must be submitted to the Ministries of Interior and Justice for approval before distribution.

ORGANIZATIONS

The Chamber of Commerce, Industry, Agriculture, and Ranching is in Nouakchott. Youth organizations include the National Union of Students and Pupils of Mauritania and the Association of Scouts and Guides of Mauritania. Several sports associations are active within the country. The Lion's Club has active programs. The International Association of French-Speaking Women has a base in the country. The World Conservation Union has an office within the country. The Red Crescent Society and Caritas are active as well.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Tourists are attracted to Atar, the ancient capital of the Almoravid kingdom, and Chinguetti, with houses and mosques dating back to the 13th century. Popular sports are rugby, surf fishing, tennis, football (soccer), basketball, and swimming.

There are few facilities for tourists, except in the capital, and travel is difficult outside of Nouakchott. Most visitors need a valid passport and visa; the visa requirement is waived for French and Italian nationals. A certificate of vaccination against yellow fever may be required if traveling from an infected area. Precautions against typhoid are recommended.

In 2005, the US Department of State estimated the daily cost of staying in Nouakchott at $202.

FAMOUS MAURITANIANS

Abu Bakr ibn Omar (Boubakar), paramount chief of the Lemtouna, defeated Ghana in 1076. His lieutenant and cousin, Yusuf ibn Tashfin, conquered Morocco in 1082 and most of Spain in 1091. The best-known contemporary Mauritanian is Moktar Ould Daddah (1924–2003), president from 1961 until 1978; after being ousted, he was eventually allowed to go to France. Lt. Col. Khouna Ould Haydalla (b.Spanish Sahara, 1940) became prime minister and chief of staff of the armed forces in 1978 and assumed the presidency in 1980. Col. Maaouya Ould Sid Ahmed Taya (b.1941), who had been prime minister (1981–84), was president from 1984 to 2005. Col. Ely Ould Mohamed Vall (c.1950) became the new military leader of Mauritania in 2005.

DEPENDENCIES

Since relinquishing its claim to Western Sahara, Mauritania has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bales, Kevin. Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy. Rev. ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004.

Calderini, Simonetta. Mauritania. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Clio Press, 1992.

Cotton, Samuel. Silent Terror: A Journey into Contemporary African Slavery. New York: Harlem Rivers Press, 1998.

Handloff, Robert E. (ed.). Mauritania, a Country Study. 2nd ed. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1990.

Pazzanita, Anthony G. Historical Dictionary of Mauritania. 2nd. ed. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 1996.

Robinson, David. Paths of Accommodation: Muslim Societies and French Colonial Authorities in Senegal and Mauritania, 1880–1920. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 2000.

Zeilig, Leo and David Seddon. A Political and Economic Dictionary of Africa. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2005.