Documents for "Turkish and Ottoman History":

• Achmet For Ottoman sultans thus named, use Ahmed.

• Ahmad For Ottoman sultans thus named, use Ahmed.

• Amurath For Ottoman sultans thus named, use Murad.

• Bajazet For Ottoman sultans and princes thus named, use Beyazid.

• Berlin, Congress of 1878, called by the signers of the Treaty of Paris of 1856 (see Paris, Congress of ) to reconsider the terms of the Treaty of San Stefano , which Russia had forced on the Ottoman Empire earlier in 1878. Great Britain and Austria-Hungary were the powers most insistent on revision; Russia submitted the treaty to revision only after...

• Eastern Question term designating the problem of European territory controlled by the decaying Ottoman Empire in the 18th, 19th, and early 20th cent. The Turkish threat to Europe was checked by the Hapsburgs in the 16th cent., but the Ottoman Turks still controlled the Balkan Peninsula. With the Treaty of...

• Fanar and Fanariots: see Phanar.

• Gallipoli campaign 1915, Allied expedition in World War I for the purpose of gaining control of the Dardanelles and Bosporus straits, capturing Constantinople, and opening a Black Sea supply route to Russia. The idea of forcing the straits was originally promoted by Winston Churchill, then first lord of the...

• Janissaries [Turk.,=recruits], elite corps in the service of the Ottoman Empire (Turkey). It was composed of war captives and Christian youths pressed into service; all the recruits were converted to Islam and...

• Karlovci, Sremski see Karlowitz, Treaty of.

• Karlowitz, Treaty of 1699, peace treaty signed at Sremski Karlovci (Ger. Karlowitz ), N Serbia. It was concluded between the Ottoman Empire on the one side and Austria, Poland, and Venice on the other. The preceding war (1683-97) had resulted in the Ottoman defeat in 1697, thereby...

• Lausanne, Treaty of 1922-23. The peace treaty (see Sèvres, Treaty of ) imposed by the Allies on the Ottoman Empire after World War I had virtually destroyed Turkey as a national state. The treaty was not recognized by the nationalist government under Mustafa Kemal...

• Malazgirt see Manzikert.

• Manzikert Turk. Malazgirt, village, E Turkey, SE of Erzurum. It was an important town of ancient Armenia. A council held there in AD 726 reasserted the independence of the Armenian Church from the Orthodox Eastern Church...

• Mehemet For persons thus named, use Muhammad.

• Mehmed or Mehmet. For persons thus named, use Muhammad.

• Montreux Convention 1936, international agreement regarding the Dardanelles. The Turkish request for permission to refortify the Straits zone was favorably received by nations anxious to return to international legality as well as to gain an ally against German and Italian...

• Mustapha For persons thus named, use Mustafa.

• Ottoman Empire vast state founded in the late 13th cent. by Turkish tribes in Anatolia and ruled by the descendants of Osman I until its dissolution in 1918. Modern Turkey formed only part of the empire, but the...

• Paris, Congress of 1856, conference held by representatives of France, Great Britain, the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), Sardinia, Russia, Austria, and Prussia to negotiate the peace after the Crimean War. In the Treaty of Paris (Mar. 30, 1856), Russia agreed to the neutralization of the Black Sea, which was to be closed to war vessels and opened to the merchant marines of all nations. The Danubian...

• pasha highest honorary title in official usage in the Ottoman Empire and with slight variation in the states formed from its territories, where it is sometimes still employed (although Turkey formally...

• Passarowitz, Treaty of 1718, peace treaty signed at Požarevac (Ger. Passarowitz ), E Serbia. It was concluded between the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) on the one side and Austria and Venice on the other. In the preceding war (1714-18) the Turks had been successful against the...

• Phanar or Fanar , Greek quarter of Constantinople (now Istanbul ). Under the Ottoman Empire, Phanar was the residence of the privileged Greek families, called Phanariots. They came into prominence in the late 17th cent. and held influential positions until the Greek war of independence began in 1821. The city is still the site of the Orthodox Patriarchate of...

• Phanariots see under Phanar.

• Požarevac, Treaty of see Passarowitz, Treaty of.

• Russo-Turkish Wars The great eastward expansion of Russia in the 16th and 17th cent., during the decline of the Ottoman Empire, nevertheless left the shores of the Black Sea in the hands of the Ottoman sultans and...

• Sèvres, Treaty of 1920, peace treaty concluded after World War I at Sèvres, France, between the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), on the one hand, and the Allies (excluding Russia and the United States) on the other. The...

• San Stefano, Treaty of 1878, peace treaty between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, at the conclusion of the last of the Russo-Turkish Wars ; it was signed at San Stefano (now Yeşilköy), a village W of Istanbul, Turkey. The Ottomans ceded to Russia parts of Armenia and the Dobruja ; agreed to pay a very large indemnity; recognized the independence of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro; and increased the territories of Serbia and Montenegro. Bulgaria was made an autonomous...

• Sepahis see Spahis.

• Sipahis see Spahis.

• Soliman For Ottoman sultans thus named, use Sulayman.

• Solyman For Ottoman sultans thus named, use Sulayman.

• Spahis or Sipahis , Ottoman cavalry. The Spahis were organized in the 14th cent. on a feudal basis. The officers held fiefs ( timars ) granted to them by the sultan and commanded the personal loyalty of the peasants who worked the land. The Spahis were entitled to all income from the fief in return for military service to the...

• Sremski Karlovci see Karlowitz, Treaty of.

• Suleiman or Süleyman. For Ottoman sultans thus named, use Sulayman.

• Tanzimat [Turk.,=reorganization], the name referring to a period of modernizing reforms instituted under the Ottoman Empire from 1839 to 1876. In 1839, under the rule of Sultan Abd al-Majid , the edict entitled Hatti-i Sharif of Gulhane laid out the fundamental principles of Tanzimat reform. Foremost among the laws was the security of honor, life, and property for all Ottoman subjects, regardless of race or religion...

• Young Turks see Ottoman Empire.